Sultan Mustafa II, a pivotal figure in Ottoman history, reigned from 1695 to 1703, navigating the empire through turbulent times. Born in Edirne in 1664, Mustafa II ascended the throne with a vision to reclaim lost territories and restore the empire’s former glory. His reign was marked by significant military campaigns, including the recapture of Chios and battles against the Habsburgs. Despite facing numerous challenges, Mustafa II’s determination and strategic prowess left an indelible mark on the Ottoman Empire. This article delves into the extra history of Sultan Mustafa II, exploring his military endeavors, administrative reforms, and the legacy he left behind.
Sultan Mustafa II was born in Edirne on June 2, 1664. Mustafa II, the son of Mehmet IV, who sat on the Ottoman throne for the longest time after Suleiman the Magnificent for 40 years, ascended to the Ottoman throne in 1695 upon the death of his uncle Suleiman II. Although he was one of the first names that came to mind to ascend to the throne when his father was dethroned in 1687, he was able to ascend to the throne in 1695 when Köprülüzade Fazıl Mustafa Pasha preferred his uncle Suleiman II. After his father’s death, he spent his early youth in the cage called the Şimşirlik dairesi (the Şimşirlik circle) where the dethroned sultan and his sons were locked up. Later, Mustafa II, who was sent to Edirne with his brother Ahmet until he was 31, became the heir to the throne since Suleiman II had no children.
His Ascension to the Throne Was Also Aided by Fortune
Sultan Mustafa II had the first opportunity to ascend to the throne in 1691. However, he had to wait a while longer because Ahmet II, one of the sons of Ibrahim Padishah who was dethroned on the grounds that he was insane, was ascended to the throne by Grand Vizier Köprülüzade Fazıl Mustafa Pasha. After Ahmet II’s death in 1695, the first name that came to mind to ascend to the throne was Ahmet II’s son İbrahim. Therefore, the preference of the palace bureaucracy was effective in Mustafa II’s ascendance to the throne. Grand Vizier Sürmeli Ali Pasha wanted to ascend his son İbrahim instead of Ahmet II. However, Mustafa II, the eldest of the Ottoman dynasty, seized the throne with the de facto situation he created. At this point, he received the support of palace leaders such as Hazinedarbaşı Nezir Ağa, had the throne set up in front of Ortakapı in Edirne Palace and declared his reign at the age of 31 without waiting for the Grand Vizier and Sheikh al-Islam.
He Reminded Me That He Was Caliph
Since the period of retreat that began after the Second Siege of Vienna, which ended in defeat during the reign of his father Mehmed IV, was not yet over, Sultan Mustafa II ascended to the throne at a time when the state was constantly declining against the West. He began to convene the divan-ı hümayun (council of ministers), which had not met regularly for a long time, four days a week. In order to regroup the state, he declared his will to go on campaign at the head of the army, like his grandfathers Fatih, Selim and Kanuni. In a decree also known as the hatt-ı hümayun that he issued to Grand Vizier Sürmeli Ali Pasha, he reminded him that Allah had granted him the caliphate and declared that the decline of the state was due to the sultans’ inclination towards pleasure and entertainment and that he would stay away from a life of pleasure and entertainment.
In his decree, his father IV. He stated that since Mehmet, the sultans had indulged in entertainment and their negligence, the enemy had taken over Islamic countries, that he himself had intended to wage war and jihad in order to take revenge on them with the help of Allah, and that his ancestor Suleiman the Magnificent had done the same, and he asked the statesmen to come together and discuss whether to go on a campaign.
Sultan Mustafa II showed with the decree he issued that he was against the peace that had been brought to the agenda with Austria through the mediation of England. Believing that the lost lands would be regained with a victory against the crusader coalition led by Austria, Mustafa II declared that peace could only come this way. The leading figures of the state, especially Grand Vizier Sürmeli Ali Pasha, opposed Mustafa II‘s desire to go on a campaign. The palace bureaucracy, who claimed that the war expenses would increase greatly if he joined the campaign, tried to persuade him to reside in Edirne. Sürmeli Ali Pasha’s attempt to prevent him from going on a campaign cost him his Grand Viziership. The sultan appointed Elmas Mehmet Pasha as the Grand Vizier Kethüda (instead of deputy minister or undersecretary) in his place on May 1, 1695. He also changed a significant number of the state’s top administrators.
Chios Island Recaptured
One of the most important successes achieved after Mustafa II ascended to the throne was the recapture of Chios from the Venetians. The capture of Chios increased the morale of the people. Great festivities were held in Edirne. Mustafa II set out on his first expedition five months after ascending to the throne, on June 30, 1695. For the expedition, called the First Austrian Expedition, two separate war councils were held in Belgrade and Timisoara. In the meetings, it was decided to seize the castles of Lippa, Lugoş, Yanova and Şebeş. In the meantime, Koca Cafer Pasha was appointed as the guard of Belgrade. Lippa was conquered first; many war materials, booty and prisoners were taken.
About 1,000 of the prisoners were given to the Kapıkulu corps. Since it was difficult to preserve, Lippa Castle was demolished. The Ottomans won the war with the support of the Crimean forces, which was fought in a forested and swampy area called Buldır by the Temes River with the Austrian army under the command of General Veterani, in which the sultan himself participated and in which he brought military enthusiasm with the hat-ı sherifs he sent. Veterani lost his life in the war. On the Ottoman side, the governors of Diyarbekir and Rumelia were martyred. Lugoş was taken after this victory. Mustafa II was given the title of “gazi” for the victories that increased the enthusiasm of the army and brought confidence to the state.
Russians Wanted to Land in the Black Sea
The Russians made their first move to reach the Black Sea during the reign of Sultan Mustafa II. For this purpose, the Russians joined the Crusader Alliance led by Austria and laid siege to the Castle of Azak. The Russians’ attempts to besiege Azak were repelled by the Crimean Khan Kaplan Giray and the Beylerbey of Kefe Mustafa Pasha. However, Peter I, who completed his preparations in a short time, laid siege to Azak again from the river and land. The castle, which was destroyed in the first siege, surrendered to the Russians on August 6, 1696. The fall of the Castle of Azak provided an opportunity for the Russians to reach the Black Sea, and caused great sorrow in the Ottoman Empire. When threats from the north were added to the threats from the west, the Ottoman Empire had to protect its borders on a wide front. Mustafa II considered the loss of Azak a prestige problem.
For this reason, he asked the wealthy viziers and beys to start preparations for the expedition, all expenses of which they would cover. In addition, for the first time in history, around 1,500 gardeners from Istanbul and Edirne were given a campaign order. Thus, Mustafa II set out on his second campaign in April 1696. However, King Friedrich Auguste of Saxony and General Heisler had besieged Timisoara with their forces. Thereupon, Mustafa II headed towards Timisoara with his army. The Ottoman forces, who encountered the Austrian army on the banks of the Bega River, achieved a significant victory on August 27, 1696. After the battle in which commanders such as Heisler and Caprara lost their lives, the Ottoman forces entered Timisoara and the castle was strengthened and weapons were reinforced.
The Treaty of Karlowitz was the turning point of the acceptance of European superiority
Austria was exhausted from the war it had waged on two fronts against France and the Ottoman Empire. For this reason, after the peace it had made with France, it wanted to make peace with the Ottoman Empire as well. However, Sultan Mustafa II wanted to achieve a permanent victory against Austria. For this reason, he did not accept Austria’s offer. After completing his preparations for the third Austrian expedition, he set out on a new expedition in August-September 1697. After evaluations were made as to whether the target of the expedition would be Varadin Castle or Timisoara, it was decided to launch an expedition against Timisoara, on the Hungarian border of present-day Romania. Timisoara was a more distant target than Varadin. Therefore, there were difficulties in transporting the army.
The rivers and swamps on the route made it difficult to move heavy artillery and horse-drawn carriages. For this reason, bridges had to be built in places. When they arrived at Zenta on the banks of the Tisza River, the army encountered great difficulties. Because a bridge had to be built and the soldiers had to be transported across the river. II. During the Siege of Vienna, Prince Eugen of Poland, who dealt a major blow to the Ottoman army, was also following the movements of the Ottoman army. The army’s staff, including the Grand Vizier, had not yet crossed to the other side of the river. Prince Eugen took advantage of this situation and organized a sudden raid. The majority of the Ottoman army remained on the other side of the Tisza River. Therefore, the remaining forces were very weak.
As a result of the fierce fighting, the Ottoman army was dispersed. In the battle, one-eighth of the army, including Grand Vizier Elmas Mehmet Pasha and about 20 commanders, were martyred. Heavy weapons, treasure chests, thousands of horses and oxen fell into the hands of the Austrians. Thereupon, Mustafa II immediately withdrew to Temeşvar. The Austrians’ failure to launch an advanced operation prevented the Ottoman armies from suffering further losses. The Belgrade guard Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha, who advocated the idea of the army organizing an expedition to Varadin Castle, was appointed as the Grand Vizier. After the Battle of Zenta, Prince Eugen, who headed towards Bosnia with his forces, advanced as far as Sarajevo and caused great destruction in the city in November 1697. Although this defeat caused great sadness in Mustafa II, he did not intend to give up the campaigns he had planned against Austria. He wanted to determine the terms of peace after the great victory he would win. He thought that a peace made without victory would shake the honor of the Ottoman Empire. The leading figures of the state were also aware of the need for peace. Because the wars on the Polish, Venetian and Russian fronts were generally developing against the Ottomans. For this reason, it was accepted that the English Ambassador W. Paget and the Flemish (Dutch) Ambassador J. Colliers would mediate for peace.
The Ottoman Empire’s lost influence against the European powers since 1683 was recorded with an agreement made in the town of Karlowitz near Belgrade. The negotiations for the agreement took quite a long time.The representatives of the Ottoman Empire were Reisülküttap Rami Mehmet Efendi and the Imperial Council translator Iskerletzade Aleksandr Mavrokordato. The wars that had been going on for 16 years ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz signed on January 26, 1699. As a result of the agreement, the Ottoman Empire lost all of Hungary except for Timisoara. The Morea Peninsula was left to the Venetians, and Ukraine and Podolia to Poland. Thus, all of the targets achieved after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 were returned. A year after the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Castle of Azak was transferred to the Russians with the Treaty of Istanbul signed with Russia in 1700.
Long-lasting Wars Shaken the State
The wars against the Venetians in the Mediterranean, the European alliance led by Austria in Europe, and the Russians in the Black Sea caused great damage to the economic and social structure of the Ottoman Empire. While the existing tax rates were increased to meet the expenses of the army, the imposition of new taxes disturbed the peace of the people. Since the Kapıkulu and Timari sipahi organization was broken, those who became soldiers with the declaration of general mobilization caused great problems when they returned to their places of residence at the end of the war.
Since the beylerbeys and sanjak beys were in the war zones, banditry movements emerged among those who joined the army with the general mobilization and those who returned to their hometowns after the war. The banditry movements that started in Anatolia forced many farmers to leave their lands and join the semi-official sarıca and sekban organizations responsible for carrying out law enforcement services. During this period when public order was disrupted in Anatolia, groups called “hayduk” emerged in the Balkans. Thereupon, governors called inspectors were appointed. In addition, the sarıca and sekban organizations were abolished.
In the meantime, the rebellions in the provinces far from Istanbul took on a political nature. A tyrant named Bebe Süleyman, who ruled around Şehrizor, seized some areas belonging to Iran. With the intervention of the Governor of Baghdad Hasan Pasha in 1699, Bebe Süleyman was forced to flee to Hakkari. This rebellion was followed by the rebellion of Hüseyin el-Abbas, one of the influential Arab tribal leaders of Syria. In addition, Basra and its surroundings were seized by Mani, the leader of the Muntefik tribe. This situation caused the deterioration of public order in Syria and Iraq. With the support of the navy built in the shipyard on the Euphrates in Birecik, the Governor of Baghdad Daltaban Mustafa Pasha restored public order in these lands in May 1701.
Crimea Confused
The disagreement that arose in the implementation of some articles of the Treaty of Karlowitz caused internal unrest among the Crimean Khans. According to the terms of the treaty, the Crimeans had to be removed from Bucak (Moldova) and settled in the Crimean lands on the coast of Özi (the region including Odessa). Gazi Giray, who opposed this situation, rebelled against the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. The incident was calmed down by Gazi Giray being exiled to Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire. In the meantime, Açıkbaş Meliki, one of the Georgian beys, declared that he did not recognize Ottoman sovereignty. Calm in Georgia was also ensured by removing Açıkbaş Meliki from office.
The Need for Reform in State Administration Has Come to the Agenda
After the defeat at Zenta in 1697, although Sultan Mustafa II indulged in hunting like his father, Grand Vizier Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha was aware of the problems. After the Treaty of Karlowitz, with the efforts of Grand Vizier Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha, the issue of military, administrative and financial arrangements came to the agenda in the Ottoman Empire. First of all, it was decided to organize the Janissary organization and decrees were sent to Anatolia from three branches. In addition, efforts were made to reorganize the timariot sipahis. With the efforts of Kaptanıderya (naval forces commander) Mezemorta Hüseyin Pasha, a law was enacted to establish a new navy. In the meantime, religious officials in the provinces were warned with the order prepared by Şeyhülislam Seyyid Feyzullah Efendi. During the campaigns carried out by Mustafa II, important financial measures were taken to meet the expenses of the army. The most important of these was the confiscation of the properties of wealthy people. In addition, the practice of collecting taxes for the coming years in advance was started. Tobacco and coffee taxes were increased. A new tax called “Bidat-ı kahve” was introduced, and it was decided that the jizya collected from non-Muslims would be paid with gold coins minted under the name Eşrefi.
Gold Coins Struck
In the meantime, with the collection of Istanbul gold of good quality by merchants and its transportation to Egypt, gold coins bearing a tughra were minted for the first time in Ottoman history. The old kuruş and zolota were withdrawn from circulation and new kuruş and zolota bearing a tughra were issued. Thus, the peaceful atmosphere created by the Treaty of Karlowitz was tried to be turned into an opportunity for economic and political stability. When the military needs created by the extraordinary conditions created by the war were eliminated, the tax burden on the people was also lightened. The people of the places that were constantly in war zones, especially Belgrade and Timisoara, were exempted from the jizya tax for one year. In the circulars sent to the provincial administrators, the people were asked not to demand taxes under the name of “tekalif-i şakka”.
Nomads Were Subjected to Forced Settlement
Mustafa II tried to turn the peace period provided by the Treaty of Karlowitz into an opportunity in the social sphere. One of the important problems of the state was the nomadic tribes. In order to put an end to this situation, the tribes were asked to adopt a settled life. The Mamalu Turkmens were settled in the Bozok (Yozgat) region, and some other tribes were settled in İçel (Mersin) and Cyprus. During the time of Rami Mehmet Pasha’s Grand Viziership, it was ordered that fabrics be woven in the workshops of Thessaloniki and Bursa, and the import of fabrics from Europe was prohibited. Of course, these measures taken and the arrangements made caused grumbling against Mustafa II. Because Mustafa II did not go out of the palace much while taking these measures. This situation led to the rumor that he had started to live like his father Mehmet IV. In fact, the lands that were lost underlay this unrest. The reactions that emerged led to the explosion of the events called the Edirne Incident.
Dethroned with the Edirne Incident
The influence of Sheikh-ul-Islam Seyyid Feyzullah Efendi on Sultan Mustafa II had increased. Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha, Daltaban Mustafa Pasha and Rami Mehmet Pasha had become grand viziers with his suggestions. However, Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha, the architect of the Treaty of Karlowitz, could no longer withstand the influence of the Sheikh-ul-Islam on Mustafa II and had resigned from his post. Although Daltaban Mustafa Pasha had completely submitted to the Sheikh-ul-Islam, Feyzullah Efendi had blamed the unrest in Crimea on him and had caused his execution. Rami Mehmet Pasha, who acted more politically according to them, sought ways to depose the Sheikh-ul-Islam. The uprising of about 200 cebecis who were intended to be sent to Georgia to demand their delayed ulufe gave him this opportunity.
Grand Vizier Rami Mehmet Pasha tacitly supported this uprising. The rebels who dominated Istanbul sent their demands to Edirne. Rami Mehmet Pasha, who took advantage of the fact that Sheikh-ul-Islam Feyzullah Efendi did not deliver this letter to the sultan, had him dismissed from his duty. Since changing rulers had become a tradition in the Ottoman palace, the rebel soldiers, who were unaware of the dismissal of the Sheikh-ul-Islam, marched on Edirne to dethrone Mustafa II. They decided that Prince Ahmet would ascend to the throne upon the proposal of Sultani Mehmet Efendi, the teacher of Mustafa II. With the efforts of the second vizier Hasan Pasha, the representative of the Edirne government, and Ahmet Pasha, the representative of Istanbul, the problem was solved without a fight. When the soldiers in Edirne also supported those coming from Istanbul, Mustafa II was left alone. On August 22, 1703, he went to where his brother Ahmet was and said, “Brother, my servant, they wanted you as the sultan,” and voluntarily left the throne to him and went to where he was staying.
At that time, he told his brother to release him and that the rebels would one day dethrone him, and that he must definitely punish them. Mustafa II, the last Ottoman ruler to lead an expedition, lived a free and compulsory life after abdicating the throne. However, his freedom did not last long. He died in Edirne on December 29, 1703, approximately five months after he abdicated, due to the kidney failure and bladder diseases he had contracted. Some Western sources state that the public believes he was poisoned. His body was buried at the feet of his father in the Tomb of Valide Turhan Sultan near the New Mosque. Mustafa II, who is said to have the character of the rulers of the rising period of the Ottoman Empire, attached great importance to the collection of taxes and not to waste in spending. Although the agreement signed in Karlowitz ended the long period of war for the Ottoman Empire, it was also during his reign that the goals that had been achieved in 200 years were abandoned. The political and military events of the period were narrated in “Nusretname” by Fındıklılı Silahtar Mehmet Ağa, under the order and name of Mustafa II. Mustafa II had 10 sons and 10 daughters.However, most of his children died before him. His sons Mahmud I and Osman III wore the imperial mantle.
Final Words
Sultan Mustafa II’s reign was a period of both triumphs and tribulations. His relentless efforts to expand and secure the Ottoman Empire’s borders showcased his commitment to his empire’s prosperity. However, the continuous warfare and internal strife eventually led to his deposition in 1703. Despite these setbacks, Mustafa II’s contributions to the Ottoman military and administrative reforms are noteworthy. His legacy is a testament to his resilience and vision for a stronger empire. The extra history of Sultan Mustafa II provides valuable insights into the complexities of his rule and the enduring impact he had on the Ottoman Empire.
Source: The Most Powerful Dynasty of History, from Ertuğrul Bey to Sultan Vahdettin, The Ottomans, Masters of Three Continents, Hasan Yılmaz, Elips Kitap, 1st Edition May 2015, Ankara.