We started the Ottoman Empire sultans’ history one by one, and our today’s article is about the “Extra History Of Sultan Abdulhamid II.” Sultan Abdulhamid II, who reigned from 1876 to 1909, was one of the most influential and controversial figures in Ottoman history. Known for his autocratic rule and extensive reforms, Abdulhamid II sought to modernize the empire while maintaining its Islamic identity. His reign saw significant advancements in education, infrastructure, and military organization. Despite facing internal opposition and external pressures, Abdulhamid II’s strategic vision and resilience left a lasting impact on the Ottoman Empire. This article delves into the extra history of Sultan Abdulhamid II, exploring his reforms, challenges, and the legacy he left behind.
Sultan Abdulhamid II, the second son of Abdulmecid, was born on September 21, 1842. Since he was born during his father’s reign, special importance was given to his education. Abdulhamid II, who also received Persian, Arabic and French education in the palace, also learned Ottoman history due to his interest in history. Since the first years after his birth were years when the Ottoman Empire was continuing its renovation efforts on the one hand and struggling to protect its lands against European states on the other, he did not receive much attention from his father.
Palace officials did not show much closeness to him because they thought his chances of ascending to the throne were low. Sultan Abdulaziz showed the closest relationship to Abdulhamid II, who was not liked by the palace officials because he had a structure that concealed his feelings and did not reveal his thoughts, with the help of Pertevniyal Kadın. Realizing Abdulhamid’s political talent, Abdulaziz also took him on trips to Egypt and Europe. He occupied himself with land works at Maslak Farm for most of his days as a prince. Here he raised sheep, operated cervix mines, and earned money by participating in stock exchange activities. It is said that his wealth exceeded 100,000 gold coins when he ascended to the throne. Mithat Pasha paved the way for Abdülhamid II to ascend to the throne. After Murat V was dethroned after receiving a report that he was mentally ill, he ascended to the throne on August 31, 1876. However, the years he ascended to the throne were the most difficult years for the Ottoman Empire.
While the Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro wars that began during Abdülaziz’s reign continued, the Russians were also trying to turn these wars into opportunities. Since the state was in a huge debt trap, the army could not be financed. Upon the advice of the Russian Ambassador, General Ignatiyev, Grand Vizier Mahmut Nedim Pasha announced in 1875 that half of the 14 million liras the state paid as foreign debt installments and interest would be cut for 5 years, and that in return, “esham” with a five percent interest would be given, which caused great reactions in Europe and made it impossible to receive new aid. European public opinion had turned against the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, an extremely difficult task awaited Abdulhamid.
First He Provided Confidence in the State
After ascending to the throne, Sultan Abdulhamid II tried to gain the trust of all by organizing separate dinners for the civilian and military wings of the state. In order to gain the trust of the people, he visited the wounded who had come from the Balkan front and were receiving treatment at Haydarpaşa Hospital. Unlike previous sultans, he visited mosques with the grand vizier and other ministers and prayed in public. This increased the morale of both the people and the army. The Turkish army achieved significant successes in the wars with the Serbs. However, upon Russia’s ultimatum to end the war immediately, a three-month ceasefire was signed with Serbia. England wanted the “Eastern issue” to be discussed at a conference to be held in Istanbul.
First Constitution Adopted, Relations with Europe Strained
The first disagreement between the Sublime Porte and Abdulhamid II arose over the appointment of palace clerks. In the meantime, it was discovered that a group that did not want peace with the Serbs was preparing to dethrone Abdulhamid II. 400 people were imprisoned in connection with the incident. In the meantime, preparations for a new constitution began, as he was brought to power on the condition that he declared a constitutional monarchy.
A commission of Muslims and non-Muslims was established for this purpose. In the meantime, when Rüştü Pasha resigned from the Grand Viziership, Mithat Pasha was appointed in his place on December 19, 1876. Four days after Mithat Pasha assumed the office of Grand Vizier, the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire, the Kanun-i Esasi, was declared. In fact, the constitution was accepted somewhat hastily and it was announced to the whole world that a constitutional government had been adopted. The reason for this was to prevent these states from making excessive demands on the Ottoman Empire at the Istanbul Conference, which was convened under pressure from Western states. However, Western states did not attach much importance to the declaration of the Kanun-i Esasi. Therefore, they presented the proposals previously prepared by the Russian embassy to the Sublime Porte.
The proposals, which included harsh provisions, were discussed by the General Assembly of 180 people, consisting of military, civil and judicial members, the government and non-Muslim religious leaders, which convened on January 18, 1877, and were unanimously rejected. When relations with Western countries became tense, the foreign ambassadors in Istanbul left a chargé d’affaires in their places and left Istanbul. Thereupon, Mithat Pasha informed England that he could reach an agreement with Western states on the condition that the implementation of the constitution was guaranteed. England resumed activities to hold a conference in London. Due to this action and the rumors about him, such as abolishing the Ottoman Dynasty and placing his own family on the throne or establishing a republic, Mithat Pasha was dismissed from his post and exiled to Taif on February 5, 1877.
The First Election Was Held
Having dismissed Mithat Pasha from the position of Grand Vizier and sent him into exile, Sultan Abdulhamid II held the first elections of the Ottoman Empire in accordance with the Kanun-i Esasi, which was accepted as the first constitution in Turkish history. Three months after the acceptance of the Kanun-i Esasi, elections were held on March 19, 1877, and the opening of the assembly consisting of the people’s representatives was also done by Abdulhamid II. There were 141 members in the first Turkish assembly. 115 of the members were deputies directly elected by the people, and 26 were influential people called notables. 69 of the deputies were Muslim and 46 were non-Muslim.
The War of ’93 Was a Great Disaster
The Russians intended to separate the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire. They wanted to end the uprisings in Serbia, Montenegro, Romania and Bulgaria with the recognition of their independence. The Russians, who could not get this request accepted at the conference held in Istanbul, attended the London Conference, which was convened with the initiative of England, with the same demands. The London Protocol was signed on March 31, 1877. The protocol, which carried harsh provisions, was discussed and rejected by the Ottomans on April 3, 1877. The Russians had no choice but to fight to achieve their goals. That was what they wanted anyway. Therefore, they officially declared war on the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877.
The war, declared in 1293 and known in Turkish history as the “War of 93,” had devastating consequences. The Russian armies, which also included Romanians, Serbs, Montenegrins and Bulgarians, launched an attack from the Caucasus and the Balkans. Despite the superior fighting qualities of commanders such as Gazi Osman Pasha in Plevne and Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha in the Caucasus, the Turkish armies suffered great losses on all fronts and had to retreat. Due to the war, there was a great influx of population from both the Balkans and the Caucasus to Anatolia. Hundreds of thousands of Turks and Muslims had to leave their homes and migrate to Anatolia.
He Closed the Parliament, Which Only Discussed and Could Not Make a Decision
The first parliament in Turkish history became a demonstration center for minorities. Minorities interpreted the personal freedom provided by the constitution as the right to national freedom, autonomy and even independence for non-Muslim elements. Armenians and Greeks wanted their own language to be accepted as an official language like Turkish. The deputies were acting solely out of a sense of ethnic affiliation. They were trying to establish superiority within the parliament and in the eyes of the government.
The second parliament elected in accordance with the constitution convened in January 1878. At a time when the Russians were advancing towards Istanbul, the parliament became a problem in itself. In addition to holding the commanders responsible for the defeat accountable, the parliament also wanted the commanders-in-chief to be tried. A proposal to this effect was accepted on January 22, 1878. The sultan sent the Speaker of the Assembly, Ahmet Vefik Pasha, to the assembly and said that he was completely in favor of the implementation of the constitution, that by abolishing the office of grand vizier he was sacrificing another one of his privileges, that the deputies would be accountable to the assembly whenever requested, but that they would be excused if a deputy was sent in their place during these troubled times.
Despite these words of the sultan, there were fierce debates in the assembly again. Although the sultan wanted the assembly to make a decision in the face of the Russian advance, the assembly could not make a serious decision on this issue. In the meantime, an armistice agreement was signed with the Russians in Edirne on January 31, 1878. When Ahmet Hamdi Pasha attempted to take the steps requested by the assembly, he was dismissed from his post. Ahmet Vefik Pasha was appointed as prime minister (prime minister) in his place on February 4, 1878. The prime minister’s duties were limited to presenting the laws passed by the assembly to the sultan and regulating the work of the council of ministers.
Parliament adjourned indefinitely
Sultan Abdulhamid II held a special meeting in the palace with five members of parliament to discuss the terms of a peace treaty with the Russians. However, the discussions held at this meeting also brought an end to the parliament, which had not yet completed a year. Because one of the deputies who attended the meeting, Ahmet Efendi, the Chamberlain of the Primers, accused Abdulhamid II in an unusual way and he was forced to defend himself. Believing that the parliamentary system made it difficult to make decisions and that his rule was being questioned, Abdulhamid II ended the meeting by saying, “I will now be forced to follow in the footsteps of Sultan Mahmut.” Then, relying on the authority granted to him by the constitution, he adjourned the Meclis-i Mebusan indefinitely on February 13, 1878.
After the first parliamentary trial, which lasted 10 months and 25 days, the constitutional state form was seemingly maintained. However, Abdulhamid II used all the authority himself. Then, on March 3, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, ending the 1877-78 Ottoman-Russian War.
Administration of Cyprus Left to the British
Russian Tsar Nicholas I had identified the Ottoman Empire as a “Sick Man” in the middle of the 19th century. The Russians’ sole aim was to quickly dismember the “Sick Man” and take the largest share of the pieces. They were acting in parallel with the British on this issue. Therefore, England proposed to review the Treaty of San Stefano at an international conference, claiming that it violated the Treaty of Paris. Austria and Germany also began to prepare for the Berlin Conference. In the meantime, England secured new concessions from the Sublime Porte by promising support against the Russians. As a result of the negotiations, the administration of Cyprus was temporarily left to England with the agreement signed on June 4, 1878. Ottoman diplomacy was forced to give up Cyprus for the sake of the support England promised at the Berlin Conference. In essence, the Berlin Conference was a conference to divide up the Ottoman Empire.
England did not keep any of the promises it made at the conference. With the Berlin Treaty signed on July 13, 1878, the Ottoman Empire was largely eliminated from the Balkans. Bosnia-Herzegovina gained the privileged status of a province, while Bulgaria’s status as a principality was accepted. The Sanjak of Niš was given to Serbia, the Sanjak of Thessaly to Greece, the Sanjaks of Kars, Batum, Artvin and Ardahan to Russia, the Sanjak of Dobruja to Romania and several districts to Montenegro. Eastern Rumelia, which is within the borders of Bulgaria today and includes the provinces of Burgas, Hasköy, Kırcaali, Tatar Pazarcıg, Plovdiv, İslimye, Yanbolu and Stara Zagora, was also given the status of autonomy. In addition to the loss of land and population, war compensation was also agreed to be paid to Russia.
Everyone Took a Piece of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire had become a share thrown into the dog’s table. The surrender of Cyprus to England had been a foregone conclusion. Austria, with the encouragement of England, assumed the administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it claimed was its natural hinterland. France seized Tunisia in 1881, and England seized Egypt in 1882. The Bulgarians occupied the province of Eastern Rumelia in 1888. Sultan Abdulhamid II did not hold himself responsible for these events that developed within two years of his accession to the throne. The state did not have a clear foreign policy, and the new balances that had formed in Europe had not been closely followed. For this reason, he pointed to the Sublime Porte as the culprit.
He Monopolized the State Administration
The events he experienced increased Abdulhamid II’s skepticism even more. Since his uncle Abdulaziz and his brother Murat V had been dethroned before him, he had doubts that he would also be dethroned. In addition, his trust in the Sublime Porte had diminished as he found it extremely inadequate in the wars and agreements that were made. For this reason, with the support and encouragement of statesmen such as Gazi Osman Pasha, the Plevne Gazi, and Cevdet Pasha, the author of Mecelle, he gathered the administration of the state under the responsibility of the Yıldız Palace. The most important thing that made Sultan Abdulhamid II powerful in the Yıldız Palace was the intelligence organization he established. Since he adopted the method of intervening in events before they occurred, he gave special importance to the intelligence organization. It did not seem possible to resist the great powers with military force. In this case, he put diplomacy into action.
The most important weapon of diplomacy was intelligence. Another important reason for his resorting to the intelligence apparatus was that European states were causing political turmoil by using minorities within their own country. It was not possible to govern the disintegrating empire without controlling various interest groups and political activities. For this reason, he also kept the press activities under strict control. In order to save the state from the financial crisis it was in, he was very careful not to involve the army in war. He tried to live a simple life by greatly reducing the expenses of the palace.
Public Debt Administration was established
The annual principal and interest payments of the foreign debts taken between 1854 and 1874 exceeded half of the state’s normal income. First of all, it was necessary to get rid of the heavy debt burden used as a tool of external pressure. Therefore, foreign debts were restructured with the agreement signed with European creditors on December 20, 1881. The agreement determining the methods to be followed in the collection of foreign debts was called the Muharrem Decree. In accordance with the agreement, the creditor countries were granted the privilege of establishing the Public Debt Administration.
The Ottoman State improved its reputation in the eyes of Western states considerably with this agreement it signed. Since a large portion of the Ottoman State’s income went to debts, new borrowing opportunities were obtained by restructuring the debts. In accordance with the agreement, the operating rights of the country’s underground and aboveground resources were left to British, French, and German companies and banks. The Ottoman Bank (Bank-i Osmanlı Şahane), a foreign institution, was granted extensive authority, allowing foreign experts to audit state finances.
Concession Method Introduced When Tax Revenues Decreased
In the Ottoman Empire, a significant portion of treasury revenues consisted of taxes collected from agricultural production. The decrease in production due to lands lost due to wars and capitulations also caused agricultural tax revenues to decrease. In order to prevent the decrease in agricultural production taxes, the “privilege method” was used. This method also led to the division of Ottoman Empire lands into economic spheres of influence.
Because creditor countries and companies tried to collect their privileges in certain regions. This situation caused Ottoman lands to be divided into spheres of influence among foreign states and companies. Germany obtained the railway privileges. With the financial support he received from Germany, Abdulhamid II attempted to extend the Haydarpaşa-İzmit railway line to Ankara in 1888. In 1902, he also gave the Germans the construction of the line connecting Ankara to Baghdad.
Established an Information Center in the Palace
In order to follow the developments in the world closely, Sultan Abdulhamid II established a kind of information center in the palace. Articles about Turkey published in the world and reports sent from foreign missions were collected and evaluated in this center. When necessary, information from foreign diplomats and scientists was also sought. The main purpose of the intelligence and information obtained was to keep the state on its feet. However, it was not easy to implement such a policy in the Ottoman Empire, which was described as the “Sick Man”. Therefore, the second method that Abdulhamid II used in foreign policy was to take advantage of the conflicting interests and ambitions of the European states regarding Turkey. He changed the tools he used as the conditions changed.
This situation led to a dynamic foreign policy application. He did not enter into permanent agreements with any state. Abdulhamid II, who placed the great powers at the center of his foreign policy to keep the Ottoman Empire on its feet at every opportunity, turned to establishing friendship with Russia against England. In Egypt, he pitted France, which was interested in the same region, against England. He tried to break the influence of England, the superpower of the period, with the balance policy he followed. He also brought France and Italy face to face in North Africa. He took advantage of the disagreements between the Balkan states, which emerged with the Berlin Treaty, to prevent them from uniting against the Ottoman Empire.
Discussions on the Caliphate Came to the Agenda During This Period
While the European states were trying to liberate the Balkans, they were also looking for new colonies in Africa and the Middle East. In these regions where Muslim Arabs and Berbers lived, the most powerful political weapon in the hands of the Ottoman Empire was the caliphate, which had never been mentioned before. England drew the caliphate weapon to weaken the Ottoman Empire’s influence in the Middle East. For this reason, they started discussions about whether the person who would be the head of state of the Muslims had to be from the Quraysh lineage. They claimed that the Ottoman sultan could not be the legitimate caliph because he was not from the Quraysh lineage.
Thus, the caliphate discussions that would always remain on the agenda in the history of the Republic began. In order to weaken the propaganda power of the British, Sultan Abdulhamid II first made arrangements regarding the caliphate in the religious books taught in the madrasahs. Upon the reminder of Sheikh Abu Huda that the issue that caused the Arabs to rebel against the Turks was the issue of imamate, the subject of imamate was removed from the books that had been taught in the Ottoman madrasahs for a long time. In addition, Muslim scholars reconsidered the issue of caliphate and said that the caliphate did not belong to a particular race.
He followed a policy of pan-Islamism against the British
Against the British propaganda that “the caliphate is the right of the Arabs,” Sultan Abdulhamid II embraced the policy of Pan-Islamism. He initiated religious propaganda in order to ensure unity among Muslims. He also benefited from religious sheikhs and influential tribal leaders in this regard. He sent the most important and experienced administrators to the provinces where Muslims were the majority, especially in Anatolia and Syria. He tried to spread the Pan-Islamist ideology by taking advantage of the caliphate. Thus, the sultan who used the title of caliph the most became Abdulhamid II. With the power this title gave him, he sent religious scholars to distant countries such as South Africa and Japan and worked to spread Islam there as well.
An Islamic university was opened in his name in Beijing. Against the British propaganda, he worked on the thesis that the common enemy among Arabs was the West. When Abdulhamid II’s counter-propaganda turned into hostility towards the West among Arabs, the Western great powers began to put pressure on the Ottoman Empire by claiming that it did not treat non-Muslim subjects equally. According to Article 61 of the Berlin Treaty signed in 1878, reforms were to be made in the provinces where Armenians lived in Anatolia. Abdulhamid II stalled the demands by claiming that this would lead to Armenian autonomy. He claimed that the majority of the population in the eastern provinces were Muslims and that special reforms could not be made for Armenians. He did not care about the attacks on his life by Armenian committee members.
He stood up for Palestine
During the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II, the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine came to the agenda. A committee of Jews came to the Yıldız Palace and asked for permission for the Jews to establish a state in Palestine. In order to convince the Ottoman Empire on this issue, they promised to cancel foreign debts. The Sultan did not accept these offers of money and also took some measures to prevent the Jews from coming to Palestine and settling there through various means.
He abandoned the policy of neutrality from the 1890s onwards
The state’s foreign debts did not allow for a long-term foreign policy based on balance. From the 1890s onwards, it felt the need to depart from neutral foreign policy. After extensive research, it agreed to economic cooperation with Germany. Because Germany had not occupied any Islamic lands until then. It was also on Turkey’s side in the Armenian issue. At the same time, German Emperor Wilhelm II had openly declared that he was a friend of Muslims. This cooperation also suited Germany. Because Germany thus had the opportunity to reach the Middle East. Both sides benefited from this cooperation. For this purpose, extensive privileges were granted to German investors, especially in the railway sector.
Priority was given to investments in education
It was not possible for the country to survive for a long time with a balance policy among the great powers. The new target of the great powers that had largely torn the Balkans away from the Ottomans was Africa and the Middle East. Therefore, the Ottoman Empire had to be economically strong. However, the Düyun-u Umumiye (General Debts) administration, which was established to pay foreign debts, managed the entire monetary and economic life of the state. Therefore, it was difficult to find new resources. Despite this, positive developments were seen in the fields of education, construction and agriculture. In the field of education in particular, the transformation of madrasahs that could not survive on their own income into schools that provided education with new methods was accelerated.
The School of Political Sciences, School of Law, School of Fine Arts, School of Hendese-i Political Sciences, Darü’l-Muallimîn-i Aliyye, School of Finance, School of Commerce, Halkalı School of Agriculture, Darülfünun, which is now called Istanbul University, was opened, consisting of maritime trade, forestry and mining, language, schools for the dumb and blind, Darülmuallimat and girls’ industrial schools, and science and literature faculties. In order to train students for these higher education institutions, primary and secondary education was given importance. A primary and secondary education system that provided education in the Western style was established during this period.
He established secondary schools, which were equivalent to middle schools, in all provinces and most districts. In Istanbul alone, he opened 6 preparatory schools, which are equivalent to high schools today. He took the primary schools, called the Iptidai, to the villages. Foreign language teaching was made compulsory starting from the secondary schools. He opened teacher training schools called darülmuallimin and law schools in many provinces. Aiming to raise the level of education in the country, Abdulhamid II also founded cultural institutions such as the Museum-i Hümayun (Antiquities Museum), the Military Museum, the Bayezid Public Library, the Yıldız Archive and Library. The first catalogues that recorded the book holdings of foundation libraries within the empire were also prepared during this period.
He Photographed the Ottoman Geography
Despite the strict censorship policy, there was a great increase in the number of books, magazines and newspapers during this period. The most important work carried out during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II was the photography of the imperial lands, especially Istanbul, village by village and town by town. Thus, a very valuable album collection consisting of these photographs was prepared. These albums constitute an important part of the Istanbul University Library today. Important steps were also taken in the field of health. The language of instruction in the School of Medicine was changed from French to Turkish. Haydarpaşa School of Medicine and Şişli Etfal Hospital, which he built with his own money, and Darülaceze, some of whose expenses he covered from his own pocket, were important steps he took in the fields of health and social assistance.
The chambers of commerce, agriculture and industry, which are considered to be among the most important institutions of commercial life today, were also opened at the end of the 19th century. In addition, for the first time, the “tahrir-i ulusal” organization was established and an attempt was made to determine the manpower and assets of the country in a statistical manner every year. The railway investments that were initiated were largely completed and transportation by train in Anatolia and Rumelia was facilitated. A wide highway network was established in Anatolia. Horse-drawn and electric trams and regular docks were built in various cities. Telegraph lines were laid as far as Hejaz and Basra.
Ziraat Bank was established
During the reign of Abdülaziz, some credit organizations were established under the name of “homeland and benefit funds”. These were renamed as Benefit Funds in 1883 and Ziraat Bank on August 15, 1888. During the reign of Abdülhamit, branches of this bank were opened in various places and farmers were supported. The Feshane factories, which produced fezzes, and the Hereke factories, which produced carpets, were expanded, and the Yıldız Çini Factory was opened. While experts were brought from Germany for military reform, Turkish officers were sent to Germany for training.
While the Turkish army was equipped with new weapons, important steps were also taken in the field of law. Criminal procedure and commercial procedure laws were enacted. For the first time, the prosecutor’s office, called the muddelumumilik, was established in courts. The police organization was also reorganized like its examples in the West. The Retirement Fund, called the Retirement Fund, was established for civil servants.
He had Söğüt rebuilt
Sultan Abdulhamid II began to take a close interest in the Turks, the founders of the state, in the face of the harassment the state received from the West. He thought that efforts should be made to strengthen the Turkish element. He said that Anatolia was the last refuge of the Turks and opposed the Germans’ desire to establish colonies there. For this reason, while trying to strengthen religious ties with the Arabs through caliphate politics, he also pursued identity politics against the Turks. For this reason, in the early years of his reign, he sent the great Turkish scholar Sheikh Suleyman Efendi from Bukhara to Central Asia on an official mission to contact the Turks and Turkmens.
Sheikh Suleyman Efendi also represented the sultan at the Turan Congress held in Pest. He took action against the Shah of Iran, who had banned the teaching of Turkish in Azerbaijan, and ensured that Turkish became the language of education again. On the other hand, he reconstructed Söğüt; he repaired the tombs and graves of the Turkish elders, the founders of the Ottoman State. He established a Söğütlü Retinue Company of two hundred men from the Karakeçili tribe, whom he called “my true countrymen” and who lived in the region.
The Second Constitutional Monarchy was declared
Although Sultan Abdulhamid II continued to accelerate his efforts for renewal, it was not that easy to keep the state on its feet. The state was in great economic trouble. Therefore, neither the people nor the workers were happy with the situation. Many intellectuals of the period advocated a transition to a constitutional monarchy as a way out of this situation. An opposition movement began around the idea of freedom and brotherhood. The intellectuals of the period believed that the only way out for the salvation of the empire was a constitutional monarchy. The opposition was led by the Committee of Union and Progress. When the resulting opposition movement began an armed resistance in the mountains of Macedonia, Abdulhamid II declared that he had put the 1876 Constitution, which he had suspended 10 months after it was declared, back into effect on July 24, 1908. After this event, called the Second Constitutional Monarchy, the internal dynamics of the Ottoman Empire suddenly took action.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire invaded Bosnia-Herzegovina on October 8, 1908 to prevent members from being sent to the Ottoman Parliament. On the same day, Bulgaria declared its independence. The day after, Crete declared its union with Greece. The first elections of the Second Constitutional Era were fought between Turks and non-Turks. The Turks were represented by the Committee of Union and Progress, which relied on the army and dominated the state and government, and the decentralized Ahrar Party (Liberties Party). Among the non-Turkish elements, the most violent struggle was waged by the Greeks, who acted under the suggestions of Greece and the instructions of the Fener Greek Patriarchate.
Overthrown by the March 31 Incident
Following the elections, Sultan Abdulhamid II himself opened the parliament on December 17, 1908. The number of Turkish deputies in the parliament was less than the number of non-Turkish deputies. Indeed, from the very first day the parliament opened, the deputies were divided into Christians and Muslims. The Arabs and Albanians from the Muslim deputies were also separated from the Turks. Thus, the Chamber of Deputies became the scene of the struggle of ethnic elements within the Ottoman Empire against Turkishness. This situation ruined the Unionists’ dreams of bringing together all elements around the idea of Ottomanism, which they called “Unity of the Anasır”.
The Unionists were forced to rely on the Turkish element in state administration. When the Union and Progress Society came to power, the first thing it did was to revise the army. The officers, who were called regimental officers because they had not been trained in the officer school, were dismissed from the army. This situation caused great unrest in the army. In addition, it was decided that the students of the madrasah would also be drafted into the army. Naturally, this situation also caused unrest. The decision to draft madrasah students into the army was considered a coup against religious education. The officers dismissed from the army also declared the Union and Progress Society as “infidels” and organized around the Union of Muhammedi Society. The Union of Muhammedi Society, founded by Hafız Derviş Vahdeti from Cyprus, began to publish provocative publications with its newspaper called “Volkan”.
Mizancı Murat also brought heavy criticism against the Unionists with his newspaper “Mizan”. The heavy provocations of the newspapers “Volkan” and “Mizan” soon yielded results and a major uprising took place in Istanbul. This uprising, which took place on March 31 according to the Rumi calendar and went down in history as the March 31 Incident, began on April 13, 1909 according to the Gregorian calendar. The following day, Armenians staged a major uprising in Adana and massacred many Turks. The events in Istanbul lasted 11 days. Much blood was shed during this period. The uprising was suppressed by the Action Army, which came from Thessaloniki and entered Istanbul on the night of 23-24 April 1909.
Abdulhamid II Dethroned
When the Action Army arrived in Yeşilköy, on April 22, 1909, some of the notables and the majority of the deputies held a secret meeting under the name of the National Assembly under the chairmanship of the head of the notables, former Grand Vizier Sait Pasha. A statement in favor of the Action Army was published at the meeting. Although it was decided at this meeting to dethrone Abdulhamid II, this decision was kept secret from him. During the meeting, Abdulhamid II told Grand Vizier Tevfik Pasha that he could leave the throne to his brother. For this reason, he requested that a commission be established in the parliament to investigate the March 31 Incident and to reveal whether he had any influence on this uprising. Grand Vizier Tevfik Pasha conveyed this offer to the Head of the Notables Sait Pasha. Sait Pasha did not accept the offer, hesitating that it had been revealed that Abdulhamid II had no responsibility in the uprising.
At a time when he was facing the threat of being dethroned, Abdulhamid did not accept the offer to oppose the Action Army coming from Thessaloniki with the First Army loyal to him. In response, he sent Dersdekili Halis Efendi and Artillery Ferigi Hurşit Pasha to the commander of the Action Army, Mahmut Şevket Pasha, and informed him that the constitutional monarchy was being protected. He also instructed the commander of the First Army not to clash with the Action Army. The fact that the two armies did not clash made the Action Army’s job easier, and order was quickly restored in Istanbul. The Commander of the Action Army, Mahmut Şevket Pasha, declared martial law, set up courts-martial and gallows, and hanged the captured rebels.
The First Army loyal to Sultan Abdulhamid II was also disbanded. Meanwhile, in a meeting they held in Yeşilköy, II. The members of the National Assembly, who decided to dethrone Abdulhamid, gathered again in their building near Hagia Sophia on April 26, 1909, after security was ensured in Istanbul. The Assembly consisted of a total of 274 people, 240 deputies and 34 notables. The first draft of the fatwa was written by Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır. Fatwa Emin Hacı Nuri Efendi, who was invited to the Assembly to sign the fatwa, hesitated to sign it after reading it. The fatwa accused Abdulhamid of three crimes; causing the March 31 Incident, falsifying and burning religious books, and squandering the state treasury.
Fatwa Emin Hacı Nuri Efendi said that instead of signing the fatwa, it would be more appropriate to propose Abdulhamid to abdicate the sultanate. Thereupon, the last part of the fatwa was changed and the choice of either the status or abdication options was left to the Assembly. Despite this, Hacı Nuri Efendi insisted on not signing the fatwa due to the accusations against the sultan. He even said that he was resigning. Finally, Mustafa Asım Efendi convinced Hacı Nuri Efendi. The fatwa was signed by Şeyhülislam Ziyaeddin Efendi and became legal. Sait Pasha, the President of the Assembly of Notables, stood up and put to a vote the decision to remove Sultan Abdulhamid II from the caliphate and sultanate, without voting on the decision to propose the sultan to abdicate.
The deputies raised their hands and indicated that they agreed with the decision. Although there were deputies who objected to the vote, the decision was taken unanimously after the discussions. The delegation elected to notify the dethronement of Abdulhamid II included the Armenian notable Aram, the Naval Feriği Laz Arif Hikmet, the Jewish Selanik deputy Emanuel Karasu and the Albanian Esat Toptani, the Draç deputy. Abdulhamid II, who was dethroned on April 27, 1909, wanted to continue his life in the Çırağan Palace. However, the Commander of the Action Army Mahmut Şevket Pasha sent him to Selanik on the same night. Abdülhamid, who was taken out of the Yıldız Palace at midnight with a few suitcases without even being able to collect his belongings, was taken to Selanik by a special train from Sirkeci with 38 people consisting of his family and entourage. Major Fethi Bey was assigned to close guard duty with 40 Selanik gendarmes. Abdulhamid, who was settled in the Alatini Mansion in Thessaloniki, spent his time there doing carpentry and blacksmithing.
The Churches’ Disagreement Was Not Resolved for Many Years
One of the most important problems between the Bulgarian Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate was the ownership of church property. Sultan Abdulhamid II was trying to prevent the Balkan states from forming an alliance against the Ottomans by taking advantage of this disagreement. The Union and Progress Society resolved the disagreement between the churches with a law issued on July 3, 1911. The law stipulated that the element to which churches and schools belonged would be determined according to the population ratio. Thus, the Balkan states, which resolved their disagreement, united against the Ottoman Empire and started the First Balkan War.
Abdulhamid was unaware of the developments since he was not given a newspaper. Sultan Abdulhamid II, who learned about the situation from the delegation that came to receive him, was surprised by the Balkan alliance and the government’s unawareness of this alliance. When he heard that the Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek and Montenegrin states had formed an alliance and attacked the Ottoman Empire, he asked whether the church problem had been solved. When he learned that it had been solved, he found it natural for the four states to form an alliance. During the war, when it was suggested that Thessaloniki would be surrendered to Greece without a single shot being fired, Abdulhamid II had to be transferred from Thessaloniki to Istanbul. When the danger was mentioned to Abdulhamid II, who did not want to leave Thessaloniki, he replied, “I will also take a gun and defend my country with the soldiers; if I die, I will be a martyr!” and cursed those who had brought the state to this situation.
Sultan Abdulhamid II, who accepted to leave Thessaloniki on the condition that he would arrive in Istanbul during the day, was transferred back to Istanbul on October 27, 1912, on the Loreley warship belonging to the German embassy sent from Istanbul; he was settled in the Beylerbeyi Palace and spent the last 6 years of his life there. During the years he resided in the Beylerbeyi Palace, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. During the war, Enver and Talat Pashas, who ruled the Ottoman Empire, wanted to benefit from Ishak Pasha’s experience by sending him to the Beylerbeyi Palace. However, since he was heartbroken, he said that he had no ideas or precautions to recommend to them, and that the state had collapsed the day it entered the war, and that it was a great irresponsibility to wage war on the side of the land-based states of Germany and Austria against the states that dominated the world’s seas.
The value of Sultan Abdulhamid II was understood more during the First World War. Many intellectuals who had written against him during his reign began to write in his favor after he was dethroned. Abdulhamid II passed away on Sunday, February 10, 1918. His funeral was held the next day in the Tomb of Mahmut II in Divanyolu.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the “Extra History Of Sultan Abdulhamid II” highlights a period of profound transformation and modernization. Sultan Abdulhamid II’s relentless efforts to reform the Ottoman Empire’s military, administrative, and social structures were pivotal in shaping the empire’s future. Although his reign was fraught with challenges, including resistance from traditional factions and external pressures, Abdulhamid II’s legacy is marked by his visionary reforms and commitment to progress. The extra history of Sultan Abdulhamid II provides valuable insights into the complexities of his rule and the enduring impact he had on the Ottoman Empire.
Source: The Most Powerful Dynasty of History, from Ertuğrul Bey to Sultan Vahdettin, The Ottomans, Masters of Three Continents, Hasan Yılmaz, Elips Kitap, 1st Edition May 2015, Ankara.