Sultan Abdulmecid Efendi, the last caliph of the Ottoman Empire, is a figure of immense historical significance. His tenure, from 1922 to 1924, marked the end of an era and the beginning of a new chapter in Turkish history. This article delves into the extra history of Sultan Abdulmecid Efendi, exploring his contributions to art, culture, and the political landscape of the time. Known for his artistic talents and intellectual pursuits, Abdulmecid Efendi’s legacy extends beyond his political role, offering a rich tapestry of cultural and historical insights.
Sultan Abdulmecid Efendi’s reign was a period of profound transformation. As the last caliph, he witnessed the dissolution of the Ottoman Caliphate and the rise of the Turkish Republic. Despite the political upheaval, he remained a patron of the arts, fostering a cultural renaissance that left a lasting impact on Turkish society. This exploration of his extra history provides a comprehensive view of his multifaceted contributions, from his artistic endeavors to his efforts in preserving the Ottoman heritage during a time of significant change.
The last Ottoman caliph, Abdülmecit Efendi, was born in Istanbul on May 29, 1868. The last son of Abdülaziz to receive the title of caliph, Abdülmecit lived in his mansion in İcadiye, where he was engaged in art, after his father was dethroned in 1876, until the declaration of the Second Constitutional Era in 1908. Abdülmecit Efendi, who was a painter and played the piano, also served as the honorary president of the Ottoman Painters’ Society, which was founded in 1909.
During the same period, he sent many students who were interested in painting and wanted to play the piano to France. Abdülmecit Efendi, who was interested in Western art as well as Western languages, learned six foreign languages, primarily French, which was the most widespread language of the period, as well as Arabic and Persian, during the years he spent at İcadiye Mansion. When his uncle’s son Vahdettin ascended to the throne on July 4, 1918, Abdülmecit became the first heir to the throne. During the years when Istanbul and Anatolia were under enemy occupation, he criticized Sultan Vahdettin‘s passive attitude and made statements in favor of the National Forces. At one point, there was even talk of going to Ankara and actively participating in the War of Independence. However, the British preferred to keep him under surveillance in Istanbul, fearing that he would have a positive effect on the people.
Paved the Way for the Abolition of the Sultanate
The evacuation of the Greek army from Izmir on September 9, 1922 also marked the beginning of a new era in Turkish history. The request to invite the Istanbul Government to the peace talks to begin in Lausanne, Switzerland also brought an end to the 623-year-old sultanate. The Turkish Grand National Assembly declared with a two-article law dated November 1, 1922 and numbered 431 that the caliphate was based on the Turkish state and that the caliph would be appointed by the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Three days after the abolition of the sultanate, the Tevfik Pasha Government also submitted its resignation. However, it did not return the imperial seal that was supposed to be returned to Vahdettin. Despite this, Vahdettin appeared at the Friday prayers on November 10, 1922 as both caliph and sultan. However, due to the news against him in the press and being left alone at the Friday prayers, he became concerned that his life was in danger. Thereupon, he applied to General Harington, the Commander of the British Occupation Forces, and stated that he wanted to leave Istanbul.
The Last Caliph Was Elected by the Turkish Grand National Assembly
Vahdettin left Turkey on the night of November 16-17, 1922 on a British battleship, causing the caliphate to become vacant. Thereupon, the TBMM elected Abdülmecit Efendi as caliph on November 19, 1922. It was decided that he would be given the title of “caliph-i müslimin” instead of the title of “emirü’l-mü’minin” that all Islamic caliphs had. On November 24, 1922, the new caliph took the oath of allegiance in the Hırka-i Şerif Office in Topkapı Palace.
A delegation of deputies, including Refet Pasha and Hoca Müfit Efendi, represented the TBMM government at the oath of allegiance ceremony. A prayer was said in Turkish for the first time at the ceremony. Similarly, a sermon in Turkish was read for the first time by Müfit Efendi on behalf of the new caliph in Fatih Mosque. In addition, Abdülmecit Efendi published a declaration to the Islamic world and thanked the TBMM for electing him.
He Became the Last Caliph Without a Sultanate
As can be seen in history during the Mamluk period, Abdülmecit Efendi, despite assuming the title of caliph without the title of ruler, followed the path of imitating his predecessors. This unusual situation soon created its own opposition. Until the declaration of the Republic on October 29, 1923, different views were put forward on whether the caliph could be considered the head of state. Because Abdülmecit Efendi wanted to use the title of “hadimul-haremeyn” in addition to the title of “caliph-i muslimin”. He also intended to wrap his turban like Fatih Sultan Mehmet and go out to the Friday prayer. He wanted to act like his uncle’s son Sultan Vahdettin and publish an Arabic version of the declaration he had published to the Islamic world. Refet Pasha, the representative of the Ankara Government in Istanbul, informed Ankara of these requests in a letter dated November 19, 1922. Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s response to Abdülmecit Efendi’s requests was harsh.
Mustafa Kemal Pasha announced that instead of Fatih’s turban, Sultan Abdulmecid Efendi could wear a formal men’s redingote with a slit in the back, double-row buttons and a long skirt, which is still worn today. In the meantime, the Indian Caliphate Conference was held under the supervision of England on December 21-27, 1922. While Abdülmecid’s caliphate was approved at the conference, the title of “münci-i khilafet”, meaning savior of the caliphate, was given to Mustafa Kemal Pasha on January 3, 1923 on behalf of Indian Muslims. With the support he received from the Islamic world, Abdülmecid Efendi began to act as a parallel center of power by creating a de facto situation against Ankara. His use of the title “Halife-i Resûlullah” instead of “Halife-i Müslimin” intensified the criticism directed at him. His signing as “Abdulmecid bin Abdulaziz Han” also led to discussions about the actual continuation of the sultanate.
Seen as a Parallel Power Center
As the date for the election of new members of the Turkish Grand National Assembly approached, Mustafa Kemal set out on a tour of the country on January 13, 1923. His aim was to take the pulse of the people regarding the institution of the caliphate. The day after he left Ankara, Afyon Deputy Hoca Şükrü Efendi published a brochure titled “The Caliphate of Islam and the Grand National Assembly.” The brochure stated that the abolition of the caliphate was unacceptable. The Islamic world was advised to be patient, and it was stated that the caliph had statesman duties in addition to his religious responsibilities, and that the caliph could fulfill these duties if conditions returned to normal. Mustafa Kemal, who learned of the situation in İzmit, said in a conversation with journalists coming from Istanbul that the caliphate would also be abolished if necessary.
In order to prevent such attempts, the “Law on the Prohibition of Propaganda Regarding the Sultanate” was also enacted on April 15, 1923. However, this law did not end the discussions on the sultanate and caliphate. The declaration of the republic on October 29, 1923 brought Abdülmecit Efendi’s position back into the agenda. The parliament was renewed and Mustafa Kemal Pasha went to Çankaya as the first president of the Republic of Turkey. In this case, Abdülmecit Efendi’s status became a subject of discussion. Newspapers appeared on this subject. Abdülmecit Efendi’s future began to be discussed in Ankara and Istanbul. The letter that Aga Khan sent to Prime Minister İsmet İnönü on behalf of the Islamic Society of England was an initiative that shook Abdülmecit Efendi’s position. This letter was published in newspapers dated December 5, 1923. In his letter, Aga Khan wanted the caliphate to be strengthened and protected. The fact that the letter was shared with the public through the press was considered by Ankara as a British conspiracy.
In the secret session held in the General Assembly of the Turkish Grand National Assembly on the night of December 8-9, 1923, it was decided to send the Independence Tribunal to Istanbul. The owners and responsible directors of the influential newspapers of the Istanbul press, “Tanin”, “İkdam” and “Tevhid-i Efkâr”, were arrested on charges of violating the Treason Law. During the same period, the final straw was when Abdülmecit Efendi continued to act like a sultan, asked for the caliphate budget to be increased and for official delegations to visit him. Ankara considered his organizing Friday processions and holding meetings with foreign state representatives as if he were a parallel government as an attack on the future of the Republic of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal, who spent February 1924 in İzmir, held meetings with army commanders and members of the press, asking for their support for the abolition of the caliphate and generally receiving this support. However, writers such as Hüseyin Cahit and Velid Ebüzziya did not abandon their pro-caliphate stance.
Deported to Switzerland Overnight
Following these discussions, which drew the reaction of President Mustafa Kemal Pasha and Prime Minister İsmet İnönü, on March 3, 1924, in line with the decision taken by the People’s Party group, Urfa Deputy Şeyh Saffet Efendi and 53 of his friends submitted a bill consisting of 12 articles regarding the abolition of the caliphate. The bill was read and discussed the same day. At the end of the discussions, which witnessed long discussions, law number 431 was accepted. The last caliph, Abdülmecit Efendi, accompanied by his son Ömer Faruk, his daughter Dürrüşehvar, his children’s teacher Salih Keramet Nigâr, two ladies, his private secretary Hüseyin Nakip and his doctor Selahattin Bey, was taken to Çatalca by car on the night of the same day and from there boarded the train. When he boarded the train, he was given an envelope by the governor, along with 2000 pounds sterling, and passports that had been visaed by the Swiss government and were issued only for exit purposes. A reservation was made by telegraph to the Grand Alp Hotel in the town of Territel on the shores of Lake Leman in Switzerland.
Became the Center of World Attention
The last caliph, Abdülmecit Efendi, became the center of attention of the entire world after settling in the town of Territel. European journalists flocked to the town of Territel to interview him. Delegations from Islamic countries also shared their sorrow at the abolition of the caliphate and wanted to learn the details of the issue from him. Abdülmecit Efendi made a statement to news agencies on March 11, 1924, regarding the developing events. In his statement, he announced that he found the decision of the Turkish Grand National Assembly to be unfounded and corrupt, and that he had declared the decision null and void to all Muslim communities. He also called for a conference to be held to revive the institution of the caliphate. Abdülmecit’s statement was met with a reaction from Ankara, and the discomfort felt was shared with the Swiss government. The Swiss government warned Abdülmecit Efendi not to make a statement along the same lines.
Settled in France
The hotel expenses of Abdülmecit and his family were around 100 pounds sterling per week. Since their current assets were not enough to cover this expense, Abdülmecit Efendi sent Salih Keramet Nigar to Paris to ask for help from the ambassadors of the Muslim states. However, he could not get any results. Thereupon, Salih Keramet Nigar went to London. There, Seyyid Emir Ali, one of the representatives of the Indian Muslims, ensured that Abdülmecit Efendi was given a monthly allowance of 300 pounds sterling from the Hyderabad State, which was fighting for independence against England in India.
The allowance provided by the state, which was also known as the Hyderabad Nizam in history and was completely abolished in 1956, relieved Abdülmecit Efendi. Abdülmecit Efendi went to France in October 1924 and settled in Nice. In Nice, he became related to Osman Nizam, the last president of the Hyderabad State. His daughter Dürrüşehvar married Osman Nizam’s eldest son Azam Câh, and his granddaughter Nilüfer Sultan married Osman Nizam’s younger son Muazzam Câh. The kinship he established with the Hyderabad Nizam completely improved Abdülmecid Efendi‘s financial situation. Abdülmecid Efendi received a response to his call for the revival of the caliphate institution while he was in Nice in 1926. The first caliphate congress held in Cairo in 1926 was hosted by King Fuat of Egypt.
This congress, which Abdülmecid Efendi could not attend, was dissolved without any results due to insufficient participation due to Ankara’s reaction. The second congress, which aimed to revive the caliphate institution, was held in Jerusalem on December 10, 1931. Abdülmecid Efendi also attended the congress, which lasted 10 days, and continued his claim to the caliphate. Turkey, on the other hand, reacted strongly to the developments. The congress was dissolved without reaching a decision due to disagreements among the participants. Unable to achieve any results in his attempts to regain the title of Caliph and gain influence in the Islamic world, Abdülmecit Efendi devoted himself entirely to worship after this date. He also continued his painting and music studies.
His Funeral Was Kept in a Paris Mosque for 10 Years
Having spent the most violent years of World War II in Paris, Abdülmecit Efendi passed away on August 23, 1944. His body was embalmed and kept in the Paris Mosque. Although his children’s teacher and assistant Salih Keramet Nigâr, who was in Istanbul at the time, made an official request to have his body brought to Turkey, he was unsuccessful. His daughter Dürrüşehvar, the daughter-in-law of the president of Hyderabad, the continuation of the former Mughal Empire, also made a request to President İsmet İnönü in this direction, but this attempt was also unsuccessful. Thereupon, Abdülmecit Efendi’s body, which had been kept in the Paris Mosque for 10 years, was taken to Medina and buried in the Jannatul Baqi Cemetery on March 30, 1954.
Final Words
Sultan Abdulmecid Efendi’s legacy is a testament to his resilience and dedication to cultural and intellectual pursuits. His efforts to promote the arts and preserve the Ottoman heritage during a period of political turmoil highlight his unique role in history. The extra history of Abdulmecid Efendi reveals a leader who was not only a political figure but also a cultural icon, whose contributions continue to resonate in modern Turkey.
Reflecting on the extra history of Sultan Abdulmecid Efendi, it is clear that his impact extends far beyond his brief tenure as caliph. His commitment to the arts and his efforts to navigate the complexities of a changing political landscape underscore his significance in Ottoman history. This article honors his legacy, celebrating his contributions to the cultural and historical fabric of the Ottoman Empire and beyond.
Source: Hasan Yılmaz, Sultans of the Seven Climates: Ottoman Caliphs from Yavuz Sultan Selim to Caliph Abdulmecid, Ankara, Elips Kitap, March 2016, 1st Edition.