Sultan Mahmud I, the 24th ruler of the Ottoman Empire, ascended to the throne in 1730 during a tumultuous period marked by the Patrona Halil rebellion. His reign, which lasted until 1754, was characterized by significant military and administrative reforms aimed at stabilizing the empire. This article explores the extra history of Sultan Mahmud I, delving into his efforts to restore order, his military campaigns, and his contributions to the cultural and political landscape of the Ottoman Empire. By examining these lesser-known aspects of his rule, we gain a deeper understanding of his impact on the empire’s trajectory.
Mahmud I’s reign was a blend of military prowess and cultural patronage. He successfully navigated the complexities of internal strife and external threats, including wars with Persia and conflicts in Europe. His strategic alliances and military reforms were pivotal in maintaining the empire’s stability. Additionally, Mahmud I was a patron of the arts and literature, contributing to the cultural richness of the Ottoman period. This exploration of his extra history provides a comprehensive view of his leadership and legacy, highlighting his role in shaping the Ottoman Empire’s future.
Mahmud I, the eldest son of Mustafa II, who went down in history as the ruler who signed the Treaty of Karlowitz, the most important document in which the Ottoman Empire accepted defeat against the West, was born in Edirne on August 2, 1696. Mahmud I, who spent his childhood in Edirne, lived in Istanbul after the Edirne Incident in 1703 until he ascended to the throne in 1730. The Patrona Halil Rebellion paved the way for Mahmud I, who generally worked as a jeweler during his years in captivity, to ascend to the throne. After his uncle Ahmet III was forced to abdicate, he wore the imperial mantle on October 2, 1730. The first person to pay homage to him was his uncle Ahmet III, whom he succeeded. In the early days of his reign, he did not say no to the demands of Patrona Halil and his followers.
Patrona Halil and his followers, who were content with cash and did not want a position in the state, appointed their own men to the posts of sheikh al-islam and kazasker, as well as janissary aghas and important guild aghas, and Silahtar Mehmet Pasha to the post of grand vizier. Patrona Halil and his followers, who had the additional taxes imposed during the reign of Ahmet III abolished, also demolished the mansions and gardens on the shores of the Golden Horn, which were used as entertainment venues during the Tulip Era. The state came under the tutelage of Patrona Halil, and important decisions began to be made in the room where the 49th congregation was located in Et Meydanı, where the Old Rooms were located, opposite the current Şehzadebaşı Mosque, the first janissary barracks in Istanbul built during the reign of Fatih Sultan Mehmet. For this reason, Mahmud I’s first priority was to get rid of Patrona Halil and his followers.
He Had His Boss Halil Strangled in the Palace
Mahmud I managed to attract the leading Janissaries and Sipahis to his side with the help of his trusted men. He had to break the influence of Patrona Halil. Because Patrona Halil could conduct general inspections in the marketplace, appear before the sultan armed and have the decisions he wanted made. Mahmud I prepared a delicate plan to get rid of Patrona Halil. A general agenda meeting of the Imperial Council was held on November 23, 1730 and Patrona Halil and his close men were invited to this meeting. In the meeting, it was decided to hold a secret meeting on November 25, 1730. In the secret meeting that was held, Patrona Halil, his close men and his guards were separated from each other.
Patrona Halil and his men, who were stripped of their weapons and guards, were killed in a raid in the Circumcision Room in Topkapı Palace. His guards waiting outside the room were also captured and executed separately. Although the courtyard of Topkapi Palace turned into a battlefield, the heads and bodies of Patrona Halil and his supporters were taken out of the palace on carts and thrown in front of the crowd waiting in front of the palace. Patrona Halil’s supporters, who saw this situation, were also dispersed. The palace, which learned its lesson from the Patrona Halil rebellion, initiated intensive surveillance in Istanbul. Albanians working in the baths were especially dispersed. 2,000 people were captured and either executed or exiled to Anatolia.
Thus, starting from November 25, 1730, Mahmud I became the real owner of the throne. Although these measures taken by the palace yielded results in a short time, a few months later a new rebellion took place with the participation of the Janissaries and cebeciler. However, the people, who were burnt by the Patrona Halil rebellion, supported the ruler this time and ensured that the rebellion was suppressed before it could grow. In addition to the Janissaries involved in the rebellion attempt, Bosnians and Albanians were removed from Istanbul. During this period when rebellions against the palace were considered normal, another rebellion attempt took place on September 2, 1731. However, this attempt also failed. Thereupon, security measures were tightened in Istanbul. Mahmud I was closely interested in social events, especially women’s attire, prostitution, inspection of tradesmen, and price-fixing issues.
He Sent Ambassadors to European Countries
Mahmud I, in a first move, sent ambassadors to Austria, Poland and Russia to announce his accession to the throne. After the Treaties of Karlowitz and Passarowitz, the Ottoman Empire’s relations with Europe had become stagnant, while the atmosphere of peace on its eastern borders had disappeared. The most important problem at this point was the border dispute with Iran. The Baghdad Governor Ahmet Pasha, whom he appointed as the commander-in-chief of the armies in the east, called the Eastern Seraskerliği, defeated the Iranians on September 15, 1731, and Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha had taken Urmia and Tabriz. An agreement was signed between Ahmet Pasha and Muhammed Rıza Kulı on January 10, 1732.
According to the agreement, Tabriz, Erdelan, Kermanshah, Hamadan, Huveyze and Luristan would be given to Iran, while Ganja, Tiflis, Revan, Shirvan, Shemahi and the surroundings of Dagestan would be given to the Ottoman Empire. What invalidated the agreement was Mahmud I’s refusal to accept Tabriz being handed over to Iran. Mahmud I dismissed Grand Vizier Topal Osman Pasha and Sheikhulislam Paşmakçızade Abdullah Efendi, who were in favor of the agreement, and after appointing Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha as Grand Vizier, declared war on Iran on October 6, 1733. Nadir Ali Shah, the ruler of the Avshar Dynasty that ruled Iran, also did not accept the signed agreement and launched a counter-attack, attacking Kirkuk and besieging Baghdad. After Nadir Ali Shah’s siege of Baghdad lasted 8 months, Erzurum Governor Osman Pasha managed to break the siege. Tabriz was then recaptured. For this reason, Mahmud I was given the title of “Gazi”. A war of influence with Iran had now begun on the eastern borders. Tabriz was the key center in the struggle. Holding Tabriz was a matter of prestige for both sides.
However, the Ottoman Empire could not hold Tabriz. Moreover, Baghdad was once again besieged by Nadir Ali Shah. Abdullah Pasha, who was appointed as the commander-in-chief of the expedition to Iran, lost the Battle of Arpachayi near Revan (Yerevan) in June 1735. Thereupon, Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha was dismissed from his post as Grand Vizier. The Governor of Baghdad, Gürcü Ismail Pasha, was appointed in his place, and the Governor of Rakka, Ahmet Pasha, was appointed as the commander-in-chief of the expedition to Iran. Mahmud I wanted to establish absolute superiority over Iran. For this purpose, he ordered the Crimean Khan to immediately go to Iran via the Caucasus. However, the fact that the Crimean Khan was going to Iran caused tension in Ottoman-Russian relations.
Thereupon, Mahmud I began to seek ways to reach an agreement with Iran. Thus, a new agreement based on the terms of the 1639 Kasr-ı Şirin Treaty was made. The ruler of Iran, Nadir Ali Shah, sent Abdulbaki Khan to Istanbul with the proposal that the Ja’fari sect be recognized, a pilgrimage be sent to Mecca by Iran every year, an exchange of prisoners, and that the two sides have ambassadors. However, Iran’s proposals were rejected. Thereupon, the Ottoman Empire sent Mustafa Agha to Iran with his proposals. In line with the signed agreement, Nadir Ali’s shahship was recognized and an agreement was reached in 1736 on the condition that Sunnism be officially declared in Iran.
Russians Attack Crimea and Azov
Having gained the upper hand against Austria in the struggle for tutelage over Poland, Tsarist Russia began to build new fortresses on the Ukrainian and Podolian borders and to send forces to places close to the Azov Castle on the shores of the Sea of Azov, one of the Russians’ exit points to the Black Sea, in violation of the provisions of the eternal peace signed in Istanbul in 1724. The forces that Mahmud I requested from the Crimean Khan to support his Iranian expedition were supposed to pass through the Kabardian region in the Caucasus.
The Russians protested the decision, claiming that this region was their own border. Although Mahmud I withdrew his order, the Russians used this situation as an excuse to attack the Azov Castle in March 1736 and then headed in the direction of Crimea. Following the Russian attack, the Ottoman Empire decided to wage war against Tsarist Russia on May 2, 1736. The army was sent to Crimea by land and sea. Some of the forces on the Iranian border were sent to Caffa. It was decided that the soldiers gathered from Bosnia would join the army in Babadağ, which is within the borders of Romania today. While the Ottoman Empire was preparing to oppose the Russians with all its forces, the French were trying to ally Austria with Russia.
Austria was also enthusiastic about this. The Ottoman Empire did not think that Austria would enter the war on the Russian side. The intelligence given in this direction was not trusted either. When the Ottoman forces set off from Istanbul on June 16, 1736 and reached Babadağ, the Austrian Ambassador Talman tried to distract Mahmud I. It was decided to continue the talks in Nemirov. The Russians captured the Azak Castle on July 13, 1736, as well as Gözleve, Orkapı and Kılburun in Crimea. They destroyed Bahçesaray and Akmescid.
Austria Supports Russians
Austrian forces attacked Niš, Banja Luka and Izvornik in June 1737, at a time when the Ottoman Empire did not expect it. The Austrian forces, who entered Wallachia (Romania) and captured Bucharest, were followed by the Russians who occupied Özi Castle on July 11, 1737. The consecutive losses necessitated a change in the Topkapı Palace council. Muhsinzade Abdullah Pasha was appointed as the Grand Vizier. Now, there was a multi-front war. For this reason, the army was directed with all its forces to different fronts to capture the lands captured by Austria.
When the Ottomans achieved results on the fronts, the French wanted to mediate for peace. Although Mahmud I accepted France’s peace mediation on the condition that the responsibility for the war would fall on Austria, he continued his efforts to strengthen the army on the border lines. He also began making plans to capture Belgrade, which was in Austrian hands. In the meantime, II., who had been residing in Tekirdağ for a while, Rakoczi Ferenc was crowned the King of Transylvania at the beginning of 1738 and sent to the Transylvania region of Hungary. In the spring of 1738, the Ottoman army, which set out on an expedition to Belgrade, was attacked by the Austrians near Temeşvar. There were fierce clashes between the two forces in the areas of Orsova, Mehadiye and Semendire.
The Ottomans took Mehadiye, occupied Orsova and Adakale, crossed the Danube and launched attacks on Temeşvar. Adakale was taken on August 17, 1738. Then, Yeğen Mehmet Pasha, who came to Nis, launched attacks on Belgrade from there. The Ottoman Empire, which fought a multi-front war against both the Russians and the Austrians, fought on the banks of Aksu and the Dniester under the command of Numan Pasha, the Commander-in-Chief of Bender Castle, which is located on the borders of present-day Moldova, to recapture Özi Castle. The Russians, who wanted to cross the Dniester, were repelled in early 1738.
The Russian fleet that went from the Sea of Azov to the Black Sea was also burned by the Ottoman fleet under the command of Kaptanıderya Süleyman Pasha. Although the Russians started the war, the events did not develop as planned. Mahmud I appointed İvaz Mehmet Pasha as the Grand Vizier instead of Yeğen Mehmet Pasha. The new Grand Vizier set out to capture Belgrade in April 1739. The Ottoman forces won the war between Belgrade and Hisarcık and Belgrade was recaptured from the Austrians. This time it was Austria that made a peace offer. Austria, which opened a new front to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire’s war with the Russians, was forced to accept the agreement made for 27 years on September 28, 1739. As a result of the agreement reached, the Austrians retreated to the north of the Danube.
Ottoman-European Relations Take on Multiple Balances
Europe had completed its reform and Renaissance studies and had begun to equip its armies with new techniques. While establishing internal peace on the one hand, they were also trying to expand their spheres of influence on the other. At this point, their strongest rivals were the Ottoman Empire and Tsarist Russia. The Russians’ greatest rival was the Ottoman Empire. Because the Ottoman Empire dominated the regions where it had the ability to expand. The fact that the Ottoman Empire was entering into different alliances worried the Russians for this reason. When the Russians wanted to enter Wallachia and Moldavia (Romania-Moldova), which were called Memleketeyn, through Bessarabia (today’s Moldova), they became alarmed by the Swedish-French agreement, France sending its fleet to the Baltic, and the Ottoman-Prussian rapprochement.
The Ottoman Empire signed a trade agreement with Sweden on January 10, 1737. This agreement made the Russians even more anxious. The Russians, who were anxious about the new balances developing against them, were forced to make peace with the Ottoman Empire on December 12, 1739. According to the agreement, the Azov Castle was left to the Russians on the condition that it would not be fortified. It was accepted that the Kabardian region would remain neutral. The French Ambassador Villeuneve, who mediated the Ottoman-Russian agreement, managed to have the capitulations extended and renewed in 1740. On the other hand, following the signed trade agreement, a defense agreement was signed with Sweden on January 4, 1740. A trade agreement was also signed with Spain. The agreements provided the Ottoman Empire with a long-term peace environment on its western borders that would last until 1768.
As the Threat in the West Ended, a New Threat Emerged in the East
After the wars with Russia and Austria ended, while life in the Ottoman Empire was expected to return to normal, the harsh winter conditions of 1740 caused a small-scale rebellion among the people. However, the rebellion was suppressed before it could grow too large. The unemployed people in Istanbul were sent back to their hometowns. Although a long-term peace environment was established with Austria and Russia, Nadir Ali Shah, the ruler of the Avshar Dynasty in Iran, wanted to expand his rule towards the Caucasus. He also wanted Baghdad, which he saw as his own hinterland. Then, in July 1743, he laid siege to Kirkuk. Upon the attack from Nadir Ali Shah, Mahmud I sent Seyyid Hasan Pasha, whom he appointed as the Grand Vizier, to the Iranian campaign.
No definite result was obtained from the battle between the two armies in front of Kars. The battles between the two armies, which were fought intermittently, continued until December 9, 1744. Thereupon, Yeğen Mehmet Pasha, who was appointed to replace the commander-in-chief of the Eastern armies, Ahmet Pasha, followed the retreating Iranian army and caught up with it at Revan. However, after he lost his life in the renewed war, the army was dispersed and Kars fell into Iranian hands. Thereupon, the Governor of Diyarbakır, Abdullah Pasha, began to organize attacks on the Iranian city of Hamadan. These attacks put Nadir Shah in a difficult position. Thereupon, he sent a message to the Governor of Baghdad, Ahmet Pasha, stating that he had abandoned the idea of accepting Ja’farism as the fifth sect, but requested that Mosul and Basra be given to him.
When Feth Ali Khan, the ambassador of Nadir Shah who came to Istanbul, reported that the Shah was sincere in his request for peace, it was decided to make an agreement and Nazif Mustafa Efendi informed Nadir Shah of the Ottoman offers in Kazvin. An agreement was reached on September 4, 1746, within the principles of the Treaty of Qasr-ı Şirin, with the Governor of Baghdad, Ahmet Pasha. The agreement stipulated that the Iranians should show respect to the companions, the safety of pilgrims and travelers, and the return of prisoners. The famous Taurus throne and other gifts sent by the Shah of Iran as a token of friendship remained in Baghdad for a long time due to the chaos that followed his assassination, but were brought to Istanbul during the reign of Mustafa III.
The Problems Are Not Over Inside
The end of the Ottoman Empire’s expansionism and the gradual shrinking of its borders brought with it different problems. Mahmud I did not only try to ward off threats from outside. The enemy was not on the border of Austria, Russia or Iran. Mahmud I also had to deal with the palace aghas incident that emerged after the execution of the Darüssaade Ağası Moralı Beşir Ağa, who was the highest rank in the Ottoman palace after the vizier and the sheikh-ul-islam and the highest of the aghas of sections such as the Harem and Enderun in the palace, due to his abuse of power.
On the other hand, Sarıbeyoğlu, who declared his autonomy in Aydın, also caused the state a lot of trouble. The fact that the soldiers returning from the wars committed banditry in Anatolia after returning to their hometowns was another issue that needed to be fought. The execution of the theft committed by Seyyid Fethi, who was appointed as the revenue officer of Damascus thanks to Moralı Beşir Ağa, through the officials he placed in the state, was another subject of rebellion. Meanwhile, the Wahhabi faith, which began to spread in Nejd by Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab in 1730, became another problem that Mahmud I had to solve.
He Wanted to Strengthen the Army
The European armies had renewed themselves and gained fire superiority over the Ottoman army. Therefore, the Ottoman army needed to be renewed. Mahmud I also tried to renew the army. To this end, he asked İbrahim Müteferrika, the founder of the printing house, to investigate the reasons for the defeats of the Ottoman army in the wars and to prepare a report on the measures to be taken. İbrahim Müteferrika presented the report he had prepared on the subject to Mahmud I in 1731, which would later be published as a book, under the title of “Usûlü’l-Hikem”. In line with İbrahim Müteferrika’s recommendations, Mahmud I assigned Humbaracı Ahmet Pasha to reform the Humbaracı Ocağı (House of Humbaracı), where hand grenades made of iron and bronze were manufactured. Humbaracı Ahmet Pasha, of French origin, on the one hand established a salaried Humbaracı Ocağı (House of Humbaracı), on the other hand, opened a barracks and a school called Hendesehane (Humbarahane) in Üsküdar in 1734. Thus, he created the first example of the engineering schools that would be established later.
In line with the suggestions made in “Usûlü’l-Hikem”, the Pipe Maker’s Corps was put into order and new cannons with high firepower and long range were cast. In 1732, a new law was prepared for the timar sipahis, which would form the basis of later laws. In the meantime, after the death of İbrahim Müteferrika in 1747, the printing house was closed due to the efforts of those who were against the printing house. Mahmud I brought masters from Poland to reactivate the printing house. He established a paper production factory in Yalova and also allowed the import of paper. The fire department firefighters, established during the reign of Ahmet III, started using hoses for the first time during the reign of Mahmud I.
Accelerated Renewal Efforts
The reign of Mahmud I was a period when the Ottoman Empire continued its efforts to renew itself according to the conditions of the era. In line with this, it tried to establish the power of the central government in the provinces. However, with the consolidation of the tax collectors who purchased the privileges of collecting taxes on behalf of the state, the group of notables, which Westerners called feudal lords, became increasingly powerful during the reign of Mahmud I. For this reason, Mahmud I published a justice document in 1740 and tried to protect the people against the pressures of the notables and the tyranny of the provincial administrators.
During the reign of Mahmud I, the state did not experience a significant economic crisis. In the Ottoman Empire, financial payments were made according to the Hijri calendar. During the reign of Mahmud I, the practice of making financial payments according to the solar calendar was initiated. In this way, it was tried to prevent the losses incurred by the state due to the 10-day difference between the two calendars. During his reign, gold, silver and copper coins were minted, and minting of money was prohibited outside of Istanbul, in Anatolia and Rumelia. Only Egypt, North Africa, Baghdad and Tbilisi, which were far from Istanbul, were allowed to mint coins.
He Lived the Last Bright Years
Mahmud I, who left a long period of peace for the Ottoman Empire and partially helped the state recover, died on December 13, 1754, at the Demirkapı entrance of Topkapı Palace while returning from Friday prayers. His body was buried next to his father Mustafa II in the Valide Turhan Sultan Tomb next to the New Mosque. Mahmud I, who wrote poems under the pen name Sebkatî, was involved in music and composed some of which have survived to the present day. Mahmud I, who was known to be a chess enthusiast and who brought the Ottoman Empire to its last glorious years, made great efforts to rebuild Istanbul, which had been badly damaged after the Patrona Halil Rebellion. Mahmud I, who continued the reconstruction works that had begun during the Tulip Era more consciously, started the construction of the Nuruosmaniye Complex, but since it was completed during the time of his successor Osman III, it was named after him.
The name of the Topkapi Coastal Palace, which he had built on the shore of the New Palace, whose Orta Kapı he had repaired, was eventually extended to the entire palace. He also had the Treasury of the Envoys built in addition to the Treasury Department in Topkapi Palace, and expanded the Beşiktaş Coastal Palace and the Yalı Köşkü with additional mansions and gardens. Apart from these, he brought many works to Istanbul that still exist today. Today’s Taksim Square was named after the water investments made during his time. The famous name “Taksim” has been used since his time due to the water tower he had built. The Tophane shores were filled in and the square was expanded during his time. The renewal of the shipyard depot and the garbage cellar next to it also took place during the time of this sultan.
He Attached Importance to the Construction of Schools and Libraries
Mahmut I had libraries built in Hagia Sophia, Fatih and Süleymaniye mosques and Galata Palace, and donated villages in Vidin and Semendire for his expenses, and had valuable manuscripts collected from the provinces and works lying idle in the palace placed there. He frequently visited the Galatasaray High School, which is today known as Galata Palace School, by re-establishing it during his term and opening a classroom. He paid special attention to the teaching of Sahih-i Bukhari in the classroom he opened next to Fatih Mosque. He had libraries built in Belgrade and Vidin outside of Istanbul and sent valuable books to these places. He had the Revan Mansion section opened in the library established by Ahmet III in Topkapı Palace and donated books to this section.
The educational and cultural activities he carried out mobilized high-level state administrators. Thus, Istanbul was virtually adorned with libraries. Of these, the libraries of Âşir Efendi and Reisülküttap Mustafa Efendi continue their activities in the Süleymaniye Library, while Atıf Efendi’s continues its activities in its independent building. Mahmud I had the primary school (children’s school) built in the Hagia Sophia Complex and the Bayıldım Pavilion in Beşiktaş. Sultan Mahmud, who had the Tokat Pavilion on Yuşa Hill rebuilt under the name of Hümayunabad, is also the benefactor of the Mihrabad Pavilion in Kanlıca.
In order to provide income for the Hagia Sophia Library, he had the Cağaloğlu Bathhouse, which is still in operation today, had foundation houses built around it, and opened it to settlement and turned it into a neighborhood. He also had the treasury building in Çatalçeşme in Sultanahmet repaired. Mahmud I also had many charitable works built outside of Istanbul. The necessary materials for the repair of the Han Palace, mosque and library in Bahçesaray, which were destroyed by the Russians in 1736, were sent by him.
Final Words
In conclusion, Sultan Mahmud I’s reign was a period of resilience and reform. His efforts to stabilize the Ottoman Empire through military and administrative changes were crucial in navigating the challenges of his time. The reforms and cultural contributions initiated during his rule not only addressed immediate issues but also laid the foundation for future advancements. Mahmud I’s legacy is a testament to his strategic vision and dedication, making him a significant figure in Ottoman history.
Reflecting on the extra history of Sultan Mahmud I, it is evident that his leadership was instrumental in shaping the Ottoman Empire’s path. His reign, marked by both challenges and achievements, underscores his commitment to progress and stability. By understanding the nuances of his rule, we gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of Ottoman governance and the enduring impact of Mahmud I’s contributions. This article honors his legacy, celebrating his pivotal role in the empire’s rich history.
Source: The Most Powerful Dynasty of History, from Ertuğrul Bey to Sultan Vahdettin, The Ottomans, Masters of Three Continents, Hasan Yılmaz, Elips Kitap, 1st Edition May 2015, Ankara.