We started the Ottoman Empire sultans’ history one by one, and our today’s article is about the “Extra History Of Sultan Mahmud II.” Sultan Mahmud II, who reigned from 1808 to 1839, was a transformative figure in Ottoman history. Known for his extensive reforms, Sultan Mahmud II aimed to modernize the empire and strengthen its institutions. His reign saw the abolition of the Janissary corps, the establishment of a modern army, and significant administrative changes. Despite facing internal resistance and external threats, Mahmud II’s vision and determination paved the way for the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. This article delves into the extra history of Sultan Mahmud II, exploring his reforms, challenges, and the lasting impact of his rule.
Sultan Mahmud II, who took the most decisive steps in the renovation of the Ottoman Empire, was born on July 20, 1785. The son of Abdulhamid I and who ascended to the throne after his older brother Mustafa IV was dethroned, Mahmud II became sultan on July 28, 1808. The fact that the rebels who wanted to kill Selim III in order to keep his older brother Mustafa IV on the throne also wanted to kill him in order to eliminate the possibility of him being an heir to the throne left deep scars on his life. His uncle Selim III was his role model while he was ruling.
He aimed to institutionalize renovation in the state by not repeating the aspects that he saw as wrong by his uncle. For this reason, his reign and the year 1826, when the Janissary Corps was a turning point in Ottoman history. The period after the abolition of the Janissary Corps were the years when reforms were widespread and institutionalized. When Mahmud ascended to the throne of the Ottoman Empire, the most powerful state in Europe was France. Due to the conflict of interests of the Ottoman Empire with Russia and England, an alliance with France had become inevitable. The war with the Russians, which began the year Selim III was dethroned, was interrupted with a ceasefire agreement and the war resumed with the accession of Mahmud II.
The war with England ended with the Kale-i Sultaniye Treaty signed on January 9, 1809, while the war with Russia lasted until 1812. The war ended with the Bucharest Treaty signed on September 28, 1812, and the Ottoman Empire agreed to withdraw from Bessarabia (Moldova). The Russians also evacuated Wallachia and Moldavia, which they had occupied. However, the Russian advance in the Caucasus had to be recognized. In addition, although the granting of autonomy to the Serbs was on the agenda, Napoleon’s expedition to Moscow in 1812 delayed the implementation of the provisions of the Bucharest Treaty regarding the Serbs. The issue of autonomy for the Serbs was later brought up again and autonomy became inevitable.
Turkish Fleet Burned in Navarino
The Balkan peoples were the most rapidly affected by the fire of nationalism ignited by the French Revolution in 1789. The Greek rebellion that began in 1821 fueled hostility towards the Turks in Europe. Although the forces sent by Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha from Egypt suppressed the rebellion, the Peloponnese Peninsula became open to external intervention. The Ottoman fleet consisting of 78 ships anchored in Navarino Bay to suppress the Greek rebellion in the Peloponnese Peninsula was sunk in a trick attack by the British, Russian and French navies on October 20, 1827. The aim of the triple alliance was to gain independence for the Greeks living in the Peloponnese. For this purpose, the French landed troops in the Peloponnese.
Thereupon, Sultan Mahmud II closed the Dardanelles to Russian ships. Using this situation as an excuse, the Russians declared a new war on the Ottoman Empire, crossed the Danube River and occupied the fortresses of Bucharest, Varna and Silistre. However, they were forced to retreat to Moldova again in the winter when they could not capture Shumen Castle. However, in the summer of 1829, the Russians opened a second front in Ardahan and Posof and advanced as far as Erzurum. They also advanced on the Balkan front and approached 68 km to Istanbul. Thereupon, the Ottoman Empire was forced to sign the Edirne Treaty with the Russians on September 14, 1829. As a result of the signed agreement, the way was opened for the establishment of a small Greek state centered in Athens. Following Serbia’s acquisition of autonomous status, the opening of the way for Greece’s independence fueled the fire of nationalism in all the Balkan peoples.
Egyptian Forces Reached Kütahya
The period of enlightenment and industrialization accelerated the search for new colonies in Europe. France, which pioneered nationalist movements, followed an imperialist policy and occupied Algeria in 1830. Thus, Algeria became the first country in Africa to cease to be Ottoman territory. During the reign of Sultan Mahmud II, one of the biggest problems the Ottoman Empire faced was the independence attempt of the Egyptian Governor Mehmet Ali Pasha. The Ottoman army and the Egyptian army met in Konya on December 21, 1832. While the Ottomans, who had lost the war, retreated, the Egyptian forces, who had captured the commander-in-chief of the Ottoman forces and Grand Vizier Reşit Mehmet Pasha, reached Kütahya on February 2, 1833.
The possibility of Kavalali Mehmet Ali Pasha seizing the Ottoman throne worried Russia. Russia, preferring a weak Ottoman to a re-empowered Ottoman under Mehmet Ali Pasha, sent land and naval forces to Beykoz for assistance in February 1833. While the Ottoman sultanate was saved with Russian support, Kavalali Mehmet Ali Pasha also got what he wanted, and the Egyptian lands seized by Yavuz Sultan Selim in 1516 and 1517 were left to Mehmet Ali Pasha’s rule with the Kütahya Treaty signed on 14 May 1833. As a result of the agreement, Mehmet Ali Pasha was given the governorships of Egypt and Crete, as well as the governorship of Damascus. His son Ibrahim Pasha was also given the governorship of Jeddah and the tax collectorship (right to collect taxes) of Adana.
Russia Gains Rights in the Straits
Russia received the reward for stopping the advance of Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha with the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi signed on July 8, 1833. The signed treaty confirmed the Treaty of Edirne signed in 1829 and included the Ottoman Empire closing the straits to European states and opening them to the Russian navy in the event of war between the Russians and European states. This provision in the treaty disturbed the European states.
The European states, who objected to the Russian superiority in the straits, held a meeting in Münchengrâtz in September 1833, which the Russians also attended. At the meeting, they agreed that Egyptian and Ottoman forces could come face to face again in the future and that if the Egyptian forces won the war and the Ottoman throne fell to Mehmet Ali Pasha, his sovereignty would be limited to Anatolian lands and that he would not be allowed to extend his sovereignty to the Ottoman lands in Europe.
Egyptian and Ottoman Forces Fought at Nizip
After long preparations by both sides, the final showdown at Nizip on June 24, 1839 resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman forces again and the gates of Anatolia were reopened to the Egyptian forces. The issue of Egypt and the straits, in turn, was resolved this time thanks to the armed intervention of England, which supported the Ottoman Empire, against Mehmet Ali Pasha, who had been supported by France from the beginning. Mehmet Ali Pasha accepted strict conditions and had to be content with obtaining the governorship of Egypt by inheritance in 1840. The straits issue was also turned into an international issue and resolved in 1841.
Centralized Management Transitioned
The local uprisings that broke out in Ottoman lands and Egypt’s independent action made it necessary to switch to centralization in administration. With the dissolution of the Janissary Corps and the abolition of the Janissary institution,Sultan Mahmud II made the weight of the central authority felt in all Ottoman lands. In order to resolutely carry out the modernization movements that had caused his uncle and brother to be dethroned, he had to get rid of the Janissary Corps. In order to achieve his goal, he learned the necessary lessons from the developments during the reign of Selim III. He took measures to break the alliance of the military and members of the madrasah class in particular. First of all, the leading ulema of the period were convinced that modernization was necessary.
For this purpose, he gathered those who believed in him, especially the sheikh al-islam, around him. He tried to please the lower-level ulema and keep them happy. In this way, he took opinion leaders who could mobilize society against the new developments. He waited for the right time to deal the final blow to those who were against innovation by appointing commanders who were in favor of innovation to leading positions in the army.
The Greek Uprising Created an Opportunity to Close the Janissary Corps
Sultan Mahmud II coincided the abolition of the Janissary Corps with the Greek uprising in the Morea, which started in 1821 and ended in 1829. While the soldiers of the Janissary Corps, who were trained using traditional methods, were unable to suppress the uprising in the Morea for years, the fact that the army of the Khedive of Egypt, Mehmet Ali Pasha, trained using modern methods, suppressed this uprising in a short time convinced the people to close down the Janissary Corps. The success of the trained Egyptian forces brought to the fore the injustice done to Selim III, and the necessity of the reforms was also understood.
Sultan Mahmud II, who seized the opportunity he had been looking for to abolish the Janissary Corps since the year he became ruler, declared that he had established the Eşkinci Corps on May 29, 1826 so that the Janissaries could attempt a new uprising, as in the example of the Sekban-ı Cedit practice, which was closed down with the Janissary uprising. He even declared that they would begin their training wearing European-style uniforms on June 11, 1826. Unable to understand the trap set by Mahmud, the Janissaries launched a new uprising on June 15, 1826.
The uprising started by the Janissaries resulted in the violent elimination of a deep-rooted institution that had brought great victories to the Ottoman Empire on three continents. Before this decision to eliminate them, which went down in history as the Auspicious Event, Mahmud II warned the Janissaries one last time, and the Janissaries, who did not respect this warning, objected. Thereupon, Sultan Mahmud II ordered the artillery to open fire, subjecting the Janissary Corps to a massive artillery barrage, preventing any Janissaries from escaping. The Janissaries who tried to escape were killed where they were caught. A new army called Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediyye, meaning the Armies of the Victorious Muhammad, was established in place of the Janissary Corps, one of the most established forces of the Ottoman armies.
The Way Has Been Opened for Reforms
Sultan Mahmud II, who managed to eliminate the Janissary Corps 18 years after ascending to the throne, relieved great pressure from himself. After this, great speed was given to the innovation efforts. The primary goal was to focus on the restructuring of the army according to the requirements of the age. In order to meet the financial need for the renewal of the army, the foundation incomes of many mosques were seized and the Evkaf-ı Hümayun Nezareti was established in 1826. Thus, all foundation wealth was collected under the administration of this ministry. When the foundation resources were allocated to the reestablishment of the army, the repairs of many mosques were delayed and their servants were given inadequate salaries.
Bektashis Were Being Followed
Since he was considered the founder of the Janissary Corps, the patron saint of the Janissaries was Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli. Members of the Janissary Corps were also considered to be followers of the Bektashi order. When the Janissaries went on campaign, Bektashi dedes and fathers were always with them. Before the army set off on an expedition, a detachment from the Janissary Corps would come to Hacı Bektaş, and with the participation of the person who was the sheikh from the descendants of Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli, they would stand in a row in the courtyard of the lodge and recite the following gülbang (prayer) and ask for help from Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli, who was accepted as a pir: Since the time of the believer Kalû-Belâ… We have made a vow to the unity of God… We have given on this path… We have a prophet, Ahmet-i Muhtar… We are the moths of the world… We are moths in the light of God… We cannot be counted with fingers, we cannot be exhausted by breaking… We said ‘yes’ to all the twelve imams, the Pirs of the order… The threes, the fives, the sevens… The light of the Prophet Kerem-i Ali, our Pir, our master, Sultan Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli… Let us say ‘Hü’ to the end of time, ‘Hü! The Janissaries, who once carried the Ottoman State from victory to victory with their heroism, became the cause of the state’s collapse after a while. Therefore, it was inevitable that the institution be completely eliminated and the mentality it represented be destroyed. Therefore, the Bektashi order, to which the Janissaries belonged, was also prosecuted. After the corps was closed by cannon fire, the old dervish lodges in Istanbul were destroyed. The leading members of the Bektashi order were executed or exiled. The old Bektashi lodges were also transferred to the Naqshbandi order, which was on the side of the state. Financial aid was also provided to the sheikhs of the order who supported the renewal movements.
The First Newspaper “Takvim-i Vekayi” Was Published During His Period
The first newspaper printed in Istanbul was “Takvim-i Vekayi”. This newspaper, which started to be published in 1831 and was published in the languages valid in the empire, Arabic, Greek, Armenian, Persian and French, tried to gain the support of the people by giving place to news about reforms. In addition to news about the travels of Sultan Mahmud II, measures taken to ensure social security, prices of foodstuffs, and salary increases made to public employees, works such as “Üss-i Zafer”, “Netîcetü’l-Vekayi”, “Gülzâr-ı Fütûhât”, which defended the righteousness and necessity of abolishing the Janissary Corps, were published in the newspaper.
He Made a Revolution in Clothing
In order to modernize Russia, Sultan Mahmud II did something similar to what Tsar Peter did in the Ottoman Empire. Without interfering with the special clothing of religious scholars and religious officials, Mahmud II made it mandatory for civil servants working in governorships and district governorships to wear jackets and trousers. He also stipulated that fezzes should be worn instead of turbans. For this reason, Mahmud II was accused of turning the people into infidels and was known as the “Infidel Sultan” for many years. Modern clothing was also determined for soldiers. It was no longer possible to train with new techniques and fight in wars with traditional shalwar and turbans. For this reason, Ottoman soldiers also began to wear modern military uniforms, which were first used by Mehmet Ali Pasha’s soldiers in Egypt.
The mehter band in the army was also replaced by trumpets and bugle. Thus, the institution of the mehter band, which had provided excitement to the Ottoman armies on the front for years, was also eliminated. The mehter bands were also saved from victimization by being assigned to positions such as janitors and chief janitors in the state. Sultan Mahmud II, who had his portraits hung in government offices as in contemporary European states, was called the “infidel sultan” despite all the measures he took to end the great decline in the Ottoman Empire, and this was considered a common fate for great reformers who tried to save the future of nations.
State Structure Changed
One of the most important innovations that Sultan Mahmud II made in order to economize on state expenses was to dismiss the staff of the Topkapı Palace, which had not been continuously inhabited for a long time. He mostly stayed in the wooden seaside palace in Beşiktaş. The seaside palace was extremely modest. Mahmud II also liked to live a modest, simple life. He did not mind living like a simple soldier. This was a lifestyle that was in line with the firm and solid will of Sultan Mahmud II, who spent more than a year in the Rami Barracks with the rank of colonel in his military uniform during the 1828-1829 war, when the Russians advanced as far as Edirne. The palace council had lost its function. Instead, it was necessary to establish independent ministries and a number of assemblies. Examples of this can be seen in Europe.
Mahmud also brought the state administration to a modern function with new names such as the ministries of Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Finance, and Evkaf (Foundations). Mahmud II also established the Prime Ministry institution in today’s sense. From 1838 onwards, one of the ministers called the minister was tasked with organizing government affairs as the prime minister. Parallel to the development of the state and the complexity of social relations, various councils consisting of civilians, soldiers and scholars, directorates such as the press, calendar office, quarantine and post office were established.
Focused on Education
While Sultan Mahmud II was renewing the state, he needed trained manpower the most. The difficulty in providing Muslim translators who could speak the language to replace the Greek translators in the imperial council and the navy who were executed or dismissed during the 1821 Greek rebellion was a painful experience for the Ottoman Empire, which was still the largest empire of its time despite the defeats it suffered against the West. France was the most powerful of the European states and French was the dominant language of the period. Although Mahmud II did not know a foreign language, he particularly encouraged the learning of French. He had a translation room opened in the Sublime Porte and became the first sultan to send students abroad. He also followed up on students who improved their foreign language skills and had them admitted to the translation room. Muslim young people who were instrumental in learning the language were assigned to the embassies that were reactivated during the reform process. French gained importance as the language of education in institutions such as the Engineering School, the Harbiye and the newly opened Medical School.
It was planned to open secondary schools in 1838, but he did not live to see it. In the meantime, two schools called Mekteb-i Maarif-i Adliyye and Mekteb-i Ulum-i Edebiyye were opened to meet the state’s need for civil servants. However, since the traditional curriculum was applied in these schools, the expected efficiency could not be obtained. Mahmut II abolished the confiscation method, which had long been a subject of complaint. The Confiscation and Mahlulat offices were closed and the practice of confiscating the property of exiled or executed people was ended. On the other hand, the timar system, which had collapsed for a long time, was abolished in 1831. At the same time, civil servants were put into a new order and their ranks and grades were determined.
Tried to Warm Up Non-Muslims to the State
Sultan Mahmud II wanted to eliminate the Muslim and non-Muslim distinctions among Ottoman subjects. To this end, he first tried to strengthen the people’s sense of loyalty to the state. The interest shown by the Bulgarians to the Russian soldiers in the 1828-1829 war, when the Russian forces reached Edirne, and the interest shown by the Muslim people to the Egyptian forces when the Egyptian forces reached Kütahya, worried Mahmud II. Similarly, the Russians’ influence on the Armenian people in Eastern Anatolia worried him. In addition, the people’s unwillingness to take on any obligations in the wars had a stimulating effect. In parallel with the efforts to improve the administration, the people’s discontent also had to be eliminated. In this direction, efforts were made to eliminate the shortcomings. In order to gain the people’s trust, he stated that he did not discriminate between the Muslim and non-Muslim people. In order to please the non-Muslims, he had churches repaired to an extent that was unprecedented in previous periods, and that numbered in the thousands.
In 1830, he officially recognized the Catholic Armenians as an independent community and ensured that new churches were built for them. He displayed a forgiving attitude towards the Armenians and Bulgarians who had collaborated with the Russians during the 1828-1829 Ottoman-Russian war. Despite the annual 400 million kuruş paid to the Russians as war compensation, he had mosques and lodges repaired to show that he did not neglect the Muslim people. He had state buildings that had been neglected for many years repaired. Of course, doing all of these strained the state’s resources considerably. For this reason, inflation rates increased gradually during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II. There was a significant decrease in the standard of living of the people, and low-income groups experienced great hardship. Like other Ottoman sultans, Mahmud II was interested in calligraphy, and like his uncle Selim III, he was interested in music. His characteristics were also seen in his grandson Abdulhamid II, who would ascend to the Ottoman throne in later years.
He Followed the Foreign Press
Sultan Mahmud II, who paid attention to the smallest detail in state affairs, particularly emphasized that documents should be written in a plain and understandable manner in order to simplify state correspondence made with combinations. After having the notes given by foreign states to the Sublime Porte translated, he would try to develop his diplomatic expression skills by examining the meanings placed between the lines and would personally write some important official documents to be given to foreign states.
Sultan Mahmud II also discovered Mustafa Reşit Pasha, who had made great contributions to the change and transformation of the Ottoman State, due to the importance he gave to plain and beautiful expression. He would definitely follow the articles about him in the foreign press. He would especially try to respond to the counter-propaganda created by Mehmet Ali Pasha through the press by spending a lot of money, using the same weapon. Mahmud II, who never forgave crimes committed against the state, also had the people who committed such crimes listed.
Some Called Him Infidel, Some Called Him Saint
Sultan Mahmud II, who tried to take measures to prevent the decline of the Ottoman Empire against the West and to protect the integrity of the state, fit a significant part of the reforms into his last three years of rule. While those who did not understand the value of his actions accused him of being the “Infidel Sultan”, those who did understand the value of his actions declared the sultan who revived the state as a “renewer” and some believed that he was a saint. Having spent so many years struggling that he said “I am tired of the sultanate”, he started to drink excessively in his last years and this situation led to fatal health problems. Not only could his illness, which was hidden from the public, not be diagnosed correctly, but doctors brought from Europe could not find a cure. When his condition worsened in 1839, he was transferred to a summer house in Çamlıca for a change of air.
On June 26, he made a will to his son Abdülmecit, who was with him, regarding the state affairs and the follow-up of the reforms he had made, and then he passed away on June 28, 1839. His death was kept secret until June 30, due to concerns that supporters of the Janissaries might revolt, so that security measures could be taken in Istanbul. When his body was brought to Topkapı Palace on July 1, it was understood that the concerns were unfounded. The official ceremony was attended by thousands of people, both Muslim and non-Muslim. The number of known wives of Mahmud II, who was buried in his tomb on Divan Yolu Street in Çemberlitaş, is 17. Although he had 36 children, most of them died at a young age. After him, his sons Abdülmecit and Abdülaziz also ascended to the throne.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the “Extra History Of Sultan Mahmud II” highlights a period of profound transformation and modernization. Sultan Mahmud II’s relentless efforts to reform the Ottoman Empire’s military, administrative, and social structures were pivotal in shaping the empire’s future. Although his reign was fraught with challenges, including resistance from traditional factions and external pressures, Mahmud II’s legacy is marked by his visionary reforms and commitment to progress. The extra history of Sultan Mahmud II provides valuable insights into the complexities of his rule and the enduring impact he had on the Ottoman Empire.
Source: The Most Powerful Dynasty of History, from Ertuğrul Bey to Sultan Vahdettin, The Ottomans, Masters of Three Continents, Hasan Yılmaz, Elips Kitap, 1st Edition May 2015, Ankara.