Sultan Abdulhamid I, the 27th ruler of the Ottoman Empire, reigned during a period of significant transformation and challenge. Ascending to the throne in 1774, Abdulhamid I faced immense pressures both internally and externally. His reign, marked by efforts to modernize the military and administration, was a pivotal era in Ottoman history. This article delves into the lesser-known aspects of his rule, shedding light on his reforms, struggles, and the enduring impact of his leadership on the empire’s trajectory.
Abdulhamid I’s tenure was characterized by his attempts to strengthen the empire’s military capabilities and administrative efficiency. Despite facing financial constraints and political turmoil, he initiated several key reforms aimed at revitalizing the Ottoman state. From the establishment of the Imperial Naval Engineering School to the reorganization of the Janissary corps, Abdulhamid I’s efforts were crucial in laying the groundwork for future modernization. This exploration of his extra history reveals the complexities and challenges of his reign, offering a comprehensive understanding of his contributions to the Ottoman legacy.
The second son of Ahmet III, Abdulhamid I, was born in Istanbul on March 20, 1725. Known as the Tulip Era ruler, Ahmet III was only five years old when he was dethroned in 1730 during the Patrona Halil Rebellion. From the year his father was dethroned, he spent a significant portion of his life in a cage in Topkapı Palace. This situation did not change during the reign of his older brother Mustafa III. He ascended to the throne on January 21, 1774 at the age of 49 after his older brother’s death. He sent ambassadors to countries such as Iran and Austria to announce his accession to the throne. Although he changed many of the members of the Divan, he kept Muhsinzade Mehmet Pasha as the Grand Vizier due to his experience.
He signed the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca
When Sultan Abdulhamid I ascended to the throne, he inherited a wreck from his brother. The Ottoman-Russian War, which began in 1768, was ongoing. His first task was to seek suitable conditions to end this war. His aim was to sign a peace agreement by taking Harşova, which is now within the borders of Romania, and then liberating Wallachia and Moldavia from occupation. Due to the defeat of the Ottoman army in Kozluca and Shumen, he was forced to accept the agreement with the conditions put forward by the Russians. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which was also negotiated during the last days of Mustafa III, was signed on July 21, 1774. With this agreement, the Ottoman Empire lost the south of Ukraine, the North Caucasus and Crimea. In addition, the Russians gained the title of protector of Orthodox Christians, who were Ottoman subjects. Thus, they had an important opportunity to interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the commercial privileges previously granted to France and England were also granted to Russia.
Tried to Put Internal Affairs in Order
After the ongoing war with Russia ended in this way, Abdulhamid I turned to solving internal problems. He tried to suppress internal rebellions through Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha and to put reforms in order through Seyyid Mehmet Pasha and Halil Hamit Pasha. A Syrian rebel named Zâhir Ömer, who wanted to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire directing all its forces to its northern borders due to the 1768-1774 Ottoman-Russian War, started a major rebellion by cooperating with the Russian navy admirals in the Mediterranean. This rebellion was first suppressed in 1775 after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Similarly, the rebellion in Egypt was suppressed before it grew too big. The Ottoman Empire, which intervened most harshly after the Treaty of Kaynarca against the disruptive actions of the Levants who had returned from military service and continued their banditry in Anatolia since Ahmet III, also managed to suppress the rebellion in the Morea Peninsula in 1779. In particular, Kaptanıderya Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzar Ahmet Pasha played major roles in the suppression of all rebellions.
Wahhabism Becomes the Major Problem
However, while trying to establish peace and tranquility in the country, it was not possible to prevent the Wahhabism movement declared by Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab in 1738 from quickly taking over the Arabian Peninsula. Finally, the Emir of Nejd, Abdulaziz bin Saud, took control of Central Arabia. Parallel to these events, which disrupted the security of Mecca and Medina and made the hajj route insecure, Ottoman-Iranian relations began to deteriorate again. After ascending to the throne, Sultan Abdulhamid I sent Sunbulzade Vehbi to Iran as an ambassador, officially recognizing the Iranian suzerainty of Zand Kerim Khan, but shortly after, Kerim Khan declared war on the Ottoman Empire because of the Baban Sanjak and the Baban family. Kerim Khan occupied the city of Basra from the Ottomans and plundered the area around Baghdad and Southeastern Anatolia in 1775. The mutual conflict between the two countries continued as long as Sultan Abdulhamid I remained on the throne.
Russia Has Been at War Again Due to Crimea
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca signed in 1774 satisfied neither the Turks nor the Russians. For this reason, relations between the two countries were strained again due to the events caused by the khanate dispute between Sahip Giray and Devlet Giray in Crimea. Şahin Giray, who received the support of the Russians, seized the Crimean Khanate, which was a prelude to the Russians taking Crimea. The Ottoman Empire did not want the Russians to annex Crimea to their territory. For this purpose, a meeting was held in Istanbul on January 12, 1778. Following the meeting, it was accepted that there was a high probability that Russian forces would enter Crimea and military preparations were started. Similarly, it was reported that Şahin Giray’s Crimean Khanate was not recognized and Selim Giray was recognized as the Crimean Khan.
The French prevented relations between the two countries from reaching the level of war. As a result of the negotiations held at Aynalıkavak Pavilion with the mediation of the French, the Aynalıkavak Treaty was signed in 1779. According to this agreement, also known as Aynalıkavak Tenkihnamesi, Crimea would remain independent, the Russians would withdraw their occupying forces, and the Ottoman Empire would recognize Şahin Giray’s khanate. With the Aynalıkavak Treaty, it was agreed that new churches would be built in the Wallachia and Moldavia voivodeships in the south of Ukraine. It was also agreed that the lands near the castles of İbrail (Braila), which is on the Romanian border today,
Khotyn, which is on the Romanian border of Ukraine, and Bender, which is on the Moldovan border, and which were given to the Ottoman Empire with the 1739 Belgrade Treaty, would be given to the Russians. Similarly, the treaty included articles such as the return of the lands seized in Mora to their former Christian owners with the Küçük Kaynarca Treaty. With this treaty, the Russians strengthened their role as a protective state not only over Crimea, but also over all the Christian people in the Balkans, especially the Orthodox.
The Ottoman Empire Turned Towards the Caucasus
After the Russians established superiority over the Ottoman Empire in the north of the Black Sea, the Ottoman Empire also planned to strengthen its influence in the South Caucasus. To this end, efforts were made to strengthen the Sogucak and Anapa castles on the eastern shores of the Black Sea. Then, through Ali Pasha, the guardian of Sogucak (today’s Novorossisk, the oil export city of the Russians via the Black Sea), an effort was made to organize the Circassian tribes. The Russians made a counter-move and reached an agreement with the Tbilisi Khan Ereğli Khan (Heraclius). Thereupon, the Ottoman Empire turned towards Dagestan. Even Sultan Abdulhamid I sent letters to the Uzbek ruler of Bukhara, Ebulgazi Seyyid Muhammed Bahadır Khan, asking for help in the expedition to be carried out against Russia to save Crimea.
Russians Annex Crimea
When Şahin Giray, who was brought to the Khanate with the support of the Russians, wanted to modernize Crimea, the Crimean Turks revolted. Şahin Giray was forced to leave Bakhchisaray. Thereupon, the Russian Marshal Potemkin intervened in Crimea with his army and put thousands of Turks to the sword, restoring Şahin Giray to his throne. After this massacre, the name of the Ottoman ruler was no longer mentioned in the sermons read in the mosques in Crimea. After a while, Marshal Potemkin came to Crimea again with another excuse, this time with a three-article agreement called the Crimean Charter, and on January 9, 1784, he completely annexed Crimea to Russia.
War Declared Against the Russians in 1787
The Ottoman Empire could not prevent the Russians from annexing Crimea because its army was not in a position to fight. Grand Vizier Halil Hamit Pasha tried to turn this incident, which caused public outrage, into an opportunity to dethrone Sultan Abdulhamid I. After this attempted coup that cost him his own life, Sultan Abdulhamid I appointed Koca Yusuf Pasha as Grand Vizier. The change in the Grand Vizier position brought dynamism to the state. While Koca Yusuf Pasha tried to have Şahin Giray, who had taken refuge in the Ottoman Empire after the Russians occupied Crimea, executed in Rhodes, he also wanted to calm the public, who were outraged by the loss of Crimea. England and Prussia also wanted the Ottoman Empire to declare war on the Russians. When the Russians formed a counter-alliance and agreed to act together with Austria, war became inevitable.
Austria and Russia signed a framework agreement they called the “Greek Project.” Accordingly, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bulgaria and Thrace, as well as the Istanbul region, which they would take from the Ottoman Empire, would be the Russians, while Little Wallachia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania and Mora would be the Austrians. Before declaring war, the Russians tried to stall the Ottoman Empire with mutual talks. At the same time, they encouraged the Egyptian Slavs to revolt against the Ottomans. Thereupon, on July 27, 1787, the Ottoman Empire gave a seven-article ultimatum to the Russian ambassador in Istanbul. Then, without waiting for a response from Russia, war was declared on August 19, 1787. In this war, called the “1787 campaign”, the Ottoman forces fought on two fronts against the Austrian and Russian forces. First, an attack was carried out on the Kılburnu Castle with the forces in the Özi Castle. However, the Russians repelled this attack and also besieged the Özi Castle. The Austrian forces also arrived in Belgrade, Semendire and Nis without declaring war.
The Ottoman army under the command of Koca Yusuf Pasha defeated the forces of the Austrian Emperor Joseph II and secured the Western Front. The same success was not achieved against Russia. After the fall of Iaşi, which is on the Moldovan border of Romania today, and Khotyn, which is on the banks of the Dniester River in the north of Moldova, the Ottoman fleet sent to rescue Ozi Castle, which dominates the Crimean Peninsula near the city of Odessa on the Black Sea coast in the south of Ukraine, was defeated. The efforts of Kaptanıderya Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha, who was sent with the main fleet, were not enough either.
Abdulhamid I Died of a Stroke
The disaster that resulted from the 1787 Expedition launched to reclaim the lands lost to the Russians, as well as the news that Özi Castle had fallen into Russian hands, caused deep sorrow in Sultan Abdulhamid I. Sultan Abdulhamid I, who suffered a sudden stroke while the note sent by Grand Vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha was being read, passed away on April 7, 1789. His remains were buried in the tomb he had built in Bahçekapı, Istanbul, across from today’s IV. Vakıf Han.
He Continued to Innovate
I. Abdulhamid had 19 children, 12 of whom were girls. Most of his children died at a young age. Only Prince Mustafa and Prince Mahmut ascended to the throne. During this period, when the philosophers of the Enlightenment Period shaped European thought and the Industrial Revolution began, he attached great importance to the reorganization of the army, especially thanks to statesmen such as Grand Vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha, Silahtar Seyyid Mehmet Pasha, Halil Hamit Pasha and Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha. He was closely involved in the reorganization of the Humbaracı Ocağı (Gunner’s Corps) and the Artillery Corps, which produced the world’s first mortar class, hand grenades made of iron and bronze. While he gave importance to the training of naval officers at the Mühendishane-i Bahrî-i Hümayun, which was opened in 1775, he also tried to renew the Ottoman navy through Kaptanıderya Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha. During this period, the construction of light ships, such as French and British ships, began for the first time. Like unemployed workers, the marine soldiers called galleoncu, who lived an irregular and undisciplined life in the bachelor rooms in Galata and Kasımpaşa, were settled in the barracks built in İstanköy, Midilli, Sinop and Istanbul dockyards.
During the reign of the reformist Grand Vizier Halil Hamit Paşa (1782-1785), new laws were enacted regarding the organization of the timariot sipahis and the Janissary Corps, and the organization of the sewer and humbaracı corps. In 1773, lessons were given at the Mathematics School established in the Golden Horn by Baron de Tott, British Muslim Kampel Mustafa and some foreign teachers. During the reign of the Minister of Artillery Emin Ağa, a French officer named Ober also developed the Speed Artillery Corps. Later, the Dockyard Engineering School was opened in 1776 by the French engineers who came. Again, in the Fortification School opened by the French in 1784, Gelenbevi İsmail Efendi and Kasapzade İbrahim Efendi began teaching mathematics alongside the French engineer De La Fayette. In addition, François Alexi, the director of the French artillery foundry, came to Istanbul with his entourage to work in the cannon foundry.
However, when France sided with Russia in the Russian and Austrian campaign that began in 1787, the French government recalled all of its experts in Istanbul, and the innovation movements that began in the Ottoman army came to a halt for a while until the death of Sultan Abdulhamid I. During the reign of Abdulhamid I, who also brought many works such as fountains, libraries, mansions and mosques to Istanbul, Turkish printing was revived, and the Samî-Şâku-Subhî Tarihi and İzzî Tarihi were printed in 1784-1785.
Final Words
In conclusion, Sultan Abdulhamid I’s reign was a period of significant reform and resilience. His efforts to modernize the Ottoman military and administration, despite numerous challenges, highlight his dedication to strengthening the empire. The reforms initiated during his rule not only addressed immediate needs but also set the stage for future advancements. Abdulhamid I’s legacy is a testament to his vision and determination, making him a pivotal figure in Ottoman history.
Reflecting on the extra history of Sultan Abdulhamid I, it becomes evident that his contributions were instrumental in shaping the Ottoman Empire’s path. His reign, though fraught with difficulties, was marked by a commitment to progress and reform. By understanding the nuances of his leadership, we gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of Ottoman governance and the enduring impact of Abdulhamid I’s efforts. This article serves as a tribute to his legacy, celebrating his role in the empire’s rich history.
Source: The Most Powerful Dynasty of History, from Ertuğrul Bey to Sultan Vahdettin, The Ottomans, Masters of Three Continents, Hasan Yılmaz, Elips Kitap, 1st Edition May 2015, Ankara.