Sultan Ahmed I, who reigned from 1603 to 1617, is a significant figure in Ottoman history. This article delves into the extra history of Sultan Ahmed I, exploring his contributions and challenges. Known for ending the practice of fratricide, Ahmed I’s reign marked a turning point in Ottoman succession traditions. His construction of the iconic Blue Mosque in Istanbul stands as a testament to his architectural vision and religious devotion. This exploration of Sultan Ahmed I’s reign reveals the complexities of his leadership, his efforts to stabilize the empire, and his enduring legacy.
Ahmed I ascended the throne at the young age of thirteen, facing immediate challenges from internal conflicts and external threats. Despite these obstacles, he implemented significant reforms and maintained a strong focus on cultural and religious patronage. The extra history of Sultan Ahmed I highlights his strategic decisions, his role in the Treaty of Zsitvatorok, and his efforts to promote peace and stability within the empire. This article provides a comprehensive look at his reign, shedding light on the lesser-known aspects of his leadership and contributions.
The 14th ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Ahmed I, was born on April 28, 1590, during his father’s Manisa Sanjak governorship. After the Battle of Haçova in 1596, due to the weather conditions, the Crusader forces led by the Habsburg Dynasty could not be dealt a finishing blow, and due to the burden on the treasury caused by the years of war on the Hungarian front, he was unable to leave Topkapı Palace due to the outbreak of the Celali rebellions in Anatolia. He assumed the throne at the age of 14 upon his father’s death on December 20, 1603.
He Found the Celali Rebellions in His Lap
Sultan Ahmed I, who was circumcised 33 days after ascending to the throne, first of all sent his grandmother Safiye Sultan, who did not take her hands off state affairs, away from Topkapi Palace by sending her to the Old Palace. Then he devoted all his attention to the endless wars with Austria and Iran. Because the army fighting on two fronts increased the burden on the treasury and the Jelali rebellions that could not be suppressed broke out. For this reason, he sent Cığalazade Sinan Pasha to Kars to lead the war on the Iranian front. Because Shah Abbas, the ruler of the Safavid State, had taken the capital of Armenia, Revan, and advanced as far as Kars. Similarly, he sent Grand Vizier Malkoç Yavuz Ali Pasha to Hungary.
Sinan Pasha caused unrest among the soldiers because he delayed the attack against the Safavids for six months. Because the army, which set out from Istanbul in June 1604, could only reach Kars in November. Of course, since the weather conditions were not suitable, he had to spend the winter in Van. He went to Erzurum upon the Shah’s attack. Sinan Pasha, who set out to capture Tabriz when the weather became suitable in 1605, caused a great defeat to the Ottoman army with Shah Abbas’s sudden raid. Sinan Pasha, whose Tabriz plan failed, retreated to Diyarbakır and held Erzurum Beylerbeyi Köse Sefer Pasha, who had acted separately from the main army and was taken prisoner, responsible for this situation. He also executed Aleppo Beylerbeyi Canbulatoğlu Hüseyin Pasha on the charge of not delivering aid within the expected time. His behavior caused a great rebellion in the army. Sinan Pasha died in Diyarbakır shortly afterwards, while Ganja, Shamaha and Shirvan, which were in Ottoman hands, fell into the hands of the Safavids.
Grand Vizier Died in Belgrade
In the Ottoman palace, the rise of pashas in senior positions in the past caused the state to be shaken by unexpected deaths. Indeed, Grand Vizier Malkoç Ali Pasha also died in Belgrade, two months after leaving Istanbul to go to the Austrian front on June 3, 1604. Lala Mehmet Pasha was appointed as Grand Vizier in his place. Lala Mehmet Pasha achieved victories that would boost morale in Anatolia and first took back the castles of Pest and then Vaç. Since the weather conditions were not suitable, no result could be obtained from the siege of Esztergom in 1604. The increasing pressure of Catholic Austria on the Protestant Hungarian people helped in the recapture of Esztergom. Because the Bey of Erdel, Bocskai (Boçkay), who was fighting for the independence of Transylvania, asked for help from Istanbul. The Ottoman State promised Boçkay, who wanted to gain independence from Austria, help for the kingdom of Transylvania. Boçkay also supported Lala Mehmet Pasha with his forces. Thus, in the summer of 1605, first Vişegrat and Tepedelen were captured. Then, on November 4, 1605, the Esztergon Castle was taken over. After these victories, support was given to the King of Transylvania, Boçkay, to capture Uyvar, which is within the borders of Slovakia today. In parallel with this support, Tiryaki Hasan Pasha captured Veszprâm and Polata. While the victories were celebrated enthusiastically in Istanbul, Etienne Boçkay was crowned the King of Transylvania and Hungary.
The Decline Began in Zsitvatorok The never-ending wars caused state revenues to go to war expenses, while the Jelali Rebellions completely jeopardized internal security. In addition, the lack of good news from the Iranian front caused stress in the palace administration. Lala Mehmet Pasha, who achieved important victories against the Austrian forces, was appointed as serdar over Iran. His removal from the Hungarian border caused the ongoing operation to be left unfinished. However, Lala Mehmet Pasha died in 1606 before he could set out on an expedition against Iran. His sudden death pushed the Ottoman Empire to seek peace on both fronts. Kuyucu Murat Pasha was assigned to the task. Kuyucu Murat Pasha, who held contacts in Budin, signed a 17-article agreement with the Austrian delegation after 23 days of negotiations in Zsitvatorok. With the Treaty of Zsitvatorok on 11 November 1606, the equality of the Austrian ruler with the Ottoman sultan was accepted. It was decided that the emperor would henceforth be referred to as “Roman Caesar” instead of “king”. In addition, the annual tribute of 30 thousand gold coins received from Austria since the time of Suleiman the Magnificent was abandoned. In return, an indemnity of 200 thousand black kuruş was received. In addition, it was agreed that both parties would refrain from harming each other.
The provisions of the Treaty of Zsitvatorok meant that the Ottoman Empire would compromise on its absolute sovereignty in Europe. With the acceptance of the principle of equality with the Austrian ruler, absolute Turkish superiority over the European states was eliminated.In addition, it was a mistake to include an old treaty signed between Boçkay, the King of Transylvania, and the emperor in Vienna and adopt it as one of the treaty provisions, and after Boçkay’s death, the emperor claimed rights in Transylvania according to this article. After this, Transylvania became a subject of dispute. Thus, it was confirmed that the growth of the Ottoman Empire had come to an end. It Fueled the Celali Rebellions Although the provisions of the Treaty of Zsitvatorok were reviewed separately in 1608, 1615 and 1616, they had a great impact on the Celali rebellions, the effects of which have survived to the present day and made Anatolia known for rebellions once again. The war on the Hungarian front, which lasted 10 years, had a disruptive effect on domestic peace, since it was financed by taxes collected from the people. The increase in tax rates weakened the timariot sipahi system.
This situation further fueled the rebellions that broke out. Thus, after the rebellion of Karayazıcı Abdülhalim, who went down in history as the first Celali to declare his sultanate in Anatolia, in 1598, the Celali rebellions spread and increased. Tavil Ahmet, who rebelled after Sultan Ahmed I ascended to the throne, defeated the Celali commander Nasuh Pasha and the Anatolian Beylerbey Kecdehan Ali Pasha. In 1605, Tavil Ahmet was given the governorship of Şehrizor to prevent the rebellion, but after a while he rebelled again and captured Harput. Tavil’s son Mehmet obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a fake decree and defeated Nasuh Pasha, who was sent against him. Baghdad was saved from the hands of the rebels in 1607. On the other hand, one of the rebels, Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha, had become powerful by uniting with the Druze sheikh Manoğlu Fahrettin in Lebanon and had spread his influence as far as Adana by defeating the Emir of Tripoli, Seyfoğlu Yusuf. He even established an army loyal to himself and minted coins in his own name. During the same period, Hüseyin Pasha, who was appointed to the governorship of Aleppo, was defeated by Canbulatoğlu’s man Cemşit.
Tavil Ahmet was given the governorship of Shahrizor in 1605 in order to prevent the rebellion, but he rebelled again after a while and captured Harput. Tavil’s son Mehmet also obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a fake decree and defeated Nasuh Pasha who was sent against him. Baghdad was saved from the hands of the rebels in 1607. On the other hand, one of the rebels, Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha, became powerful by uniting with the Druze sheikh Manoğlu Fahrettin in Lebanon and defeated the Emir of Tripoli, Seyfoğlu Yusuf, and spread his influence as far as Adana. He even established an army loyal to himself and minted coins in his own name. In the same period, Hüseyin Pasha, who was appointed governor of Aleppo, was defeated by Canbulatoğlu’s man Cemşit.Tavil Ahmet was given the governorship of Shahrizor in 1605 in order to prevent the rebellion, but he rebelled again after a while and captured Harput.
Tavil’s son Mehmet also obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a fake decree and defeated Nasuh Pasha who was sent against him. Baghdad was saved from the hands of the rebels in 1607. On the other hand, one of the rebels, Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha, became powerful by uniting with the Druze sheikh Manoğlu Fahrettin in Lebanon and defeated the Emir of Tripoli, Seyfoğlu Yusuf, and spread his influence as far as Adana. He even established an army loyal to himself and minted coins in his own name. In the same period, Hüseyin Pasha, who was appointed governor of Aleppo, was defeated by Canbulatoğlu’s man Cemşit.
Anatolia Turned Into a Bloodbath
The point that the Ottoman palace administration, which had been disrupted since Selim II, had reached was that Anatolia had fallen into the hands of rebels. The inadequacy of Grand Vizier Derviş Pasha in suppressing these rebellions resulted in his execution in 1606. Afterwards, Kuyucu Mehmet Pasha, who signed the Zitvatorok Agreement, was appointed as the Grand Vizier and sent to Anatolia to suppress the rebellions. Kuyucu Murat Pasha first marched on Syria, taking Tiryaki Hasan Pasha with him. On his way to Syria, he declared that he had given the Ankara Sanjak Beyship to Kalenderoğlu, who had emerged around Manisa and Bursa, and stopped the spread of the rebellion in Anatolia.
Thus, he acted without concern against Canbulatoğlu, whose influence had spread as far as Adana and was based in Lebanon. The Ottoman forces, who clashed with Canbulatoğlu’s forces in the Oruç Plain near Hatay, achieved an important victory on October 24, 1607. Thereupon, Manoğlu Fahrettin fled to Lebanon, taking the tribes loyal to him with him. Canbulatoğlu, one of the Celalis, escaped from the hands of Kuyucu Murat Pasha and took refuge with Ahmet I in Istanbul. Sultan Ahmed I sent Canbulatoğlu first to the province of Temeşvar, which is within the borders of today’s Romania, and then to the province of Belgrade as governor. However, when he continued the Celali customs in the places he went and made the people tired, he was beheaded. Kalenderoğlu, who took over the Ankara Sanjak Beylik, rebelled again when he was not allowed into the city by the people of Ankara. However, he was defeated by Murat Pasha’s army in Alaçayır and escaped to Iran with the rebels with him.
After getting rid of Kalenderoğlu, Kuyucu Murat Pasha started a large-scale rebel hunt in Anatolia. During this operation, he had wells dug, from which he earned his nickname, and punished the rebels by throwing them into these wells to set an example for the people. Thus, he returned to Istanbul, spreading deep fear in Anatolia. He invited the Celali chiefs he could not capture in Anatolia to join the army under the pretext of organizing an expedition to Iran. He was also saved from the Jelali chiefs who came to Istanbul to join the army in this way. When Kuyucu Murat Pasha cleared Anatolia of rebels, he went on an expedition to Tabriz in 1610. However, Shah Abbas died in Diyarbakır, where he came to spend the winter, in 1611, because the Ottoman army did not confront him.
May God not harm the state
During the Celali rebellions, a great authority gap occurred in Anatolia. While this gap left the field to the bandits, the people understood better how much they needed the existence of the state. For this reason, the prayer “May Allah not destroy the state!” became widespread. Because many villages were devastated, many people had to leave their villages during this period. Some military classes took the emptied villages under their control as if they were their “mülk-i mevrûs”. For this reason, the treasury was deprived of the financial, in-kind and physical taxes imposed on the people during states of emergency called avarız. In addition, the taxes collected from grain called nuzul could not be collected. Sultan Ahmed I issued a decree of justice on September 30, 1609 so that the people could settle in the emptied villages. However, it took many years for order to be established in Anatolia.
An Agreement Was Signed with Iran in 1612
The wars on the Iranian front, which had placed a heavy burden on the Ottoman treasury, also ended with the Ottoman-Safavid treaty signed on November 20, 1612. In accordance with the treaty signed by Grand Vizier Nasuh Pasha, Shah Abbas agreed to pay an annual tax of 200 loads of silk. In accordance with the treaty, which is also known in history as the Nasuh Pasha Treaty, the borders of 1555 were returned. The treaty made with Iran was annulled three years later when Shah Abbas did not send the silks he promised and İncili Mustafa Çavuş, who went as an ambassador, was detained. Although the decision to launch an expedition against Iran under the command of Grand Vizier Öküz Mehmet Pasha was made on May 22, 1615, Mehmet Pasha was only able to launch this expedition a year later. During this period, Shah Abbas strengthened his army and occupied and destroyed Ganja.
Öküz Mehmet Pasha set out with a large army via Aleppo in April 1616 and established his war headquarters in Kars. He then sent forces to Revan (Yerevan) and the city of Nihavend, which is now in the Hamedan province of Iran. Shortly afterwards, he took his main force and moved to Revan. Although he defeated the Iranian army here, he could not achieve any results because he did not have siege cannons to overcome the walls of Revan and had to return to Erzurum. Thus, the Revan campaign could not yield any results. This situation resulted in the dismissal of Öküz Mehmet Pasha. Then, Sultan Ahmed I did not accept the terms of the agreement accepted by Mehmet Pasha and appointed Halil Pasha as the Grand Vizier to continue the campaign. However, this time, the Crimean Khan Canbek Giray appeared against the Ottomans. Canbek Giray Khan launched attacks on Ganja, Nakhchivan and Julfa. Importance was Given to the Navy In the meantime, the Ottoman coasts were extremely vulnerable to attacks from the sea.
For this reason, the Kingdom of Spain and its allies, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Knights of Malta, turned the Mediterranean into a sea of fear. In 1611, a Maltese fleet attacked Gördüs (Corinth) in the Peloponnese Peninsula and took 500 prisoners. In 1612, a Tuscan fleet took 1200 prisoners from İstanköy (the island of Kos, which belongs to Greece today). The harshest response to these piracies was given by the Ottoman navy under the command of Halil Pasha. The Ottoman navy under the command of Halil Pasha encountered about ten Maltese pirate ships in the waters of Cyprus; they defeated them and managed to destroy the largest ship of the period, the “Karacehennem”.
Again, during this time, sailors named Captain Memi and Lala Cafer inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. Sultan Ahmed I, who gave importance to strengthening the navy in order not to lose his superiority at sea, appointed Halil Pasha as Kaptan-i Derya for the second time. Halil Pasha first landed troops in Malta to intimidate the pirates. Then he eliminated Sefer Dayı, the leader of the local levents in Tripoli. Of course, the Cossacks, who could be called raiders of the Russians who took advantage of the Ottoman fleet in the Mediterranean, raided Sinop and completely looted the city. However, the Ottoman forces later severely punished the Cossacks living in Southern Siberia and Ukraine.
Poles Also Launched Attack
During the years when the Ottoman Empire was trying to eliminate the harassment on the Iranian border, the Polish nobleman Samuel Korezky captured Moldavia, a large part of which is in Moldova today, with an army consisting of Cossacks. Sultan Ahmed I assigned the Bosnian Beylerbey Iskender Pasha to protect Moldavia, which was under his control. Iskender Pasha moved towards Moldavia and defeated Korezky, returning to Istanbul with 500 Cossack prisoners. However, since the Cossacks were a major problem on the borders of the Ottoman Empire, Iskender Pasha was assigned to solve this problem at its root. In order to encounter the forces of the Polish army (Poland) and the voivodes of Wallachia (the Romanian lands west of the Prut River today), Moldavia (Moldova), and Transylvania (the western and central regions of Romania), Iskender Pasha moved towards the Dniester River, also known as Turla in history and which forms the border between Ukraine and Moldova today. When he was about to face the Polish army, he sat at the peace table upon the Poles’ request and the terms of the agreement were determined on September 27, 1617. According to these terms, the Cossacks would not cross the Dniester River and would not go down to the Black Sea, in return the Crimean Tatars would not raid Poland; Poland would continue to pay the taxes it was already paying.
Agreements Renewed
After ascending to the throne, Sultan Ahmed I remained loyal to all agreements of the Ottoman Empire and renewed the agreements with England, France and Venice. He also expanded the provisions of the agreement made with France and allowed the Spanish, Portuguese, Catalans, Ragusans, Genoese, Anconians and Florentines to trade with the Ottoman Empire under the French flag. In addition, the first commercial agreement was signed with the Netherlands in July 1612. In the meantime, tobacco was first used in the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Ahmet I. As a result of the agreement made with the English, Anatolia was introduced to tobacco by English, Venetian and Spanish sailors and merchants between 1601-1605. Thus, tobacco entered Anatolia 50 years after it had come to Europe. Sultan Ahmed I also imposed a ban on alcohol throughout the country.
He was a religious sultan
Despite his young age, Sultan Ahmed I was a devout sultan, known for his harsh stance against traitors to himself and the state. Like his predecessors, Ahmet I loved hunting, also playing javelin and writing poetry, and used the pen name Bahti. At the age of 27, Sultan Ahmed I suffered from a severe stomach ailment and received treatment for 51 days, before passing away on November 22, 1617.
Ekberiyet and Eşrediyet System Arrived
The negative examples experienced before Sultan Ahmed I had made a more humane system necessary for the accession to the Ottoman throne. In order to avoid repeating the dramatic scenes experienced especially during the accession to the throne of Mehmet III, fratricide was abandoned and after the death of Sultan Ahmed I, the method of the most senior member of the dynasty, called “ekberiyet” and “erşediyet”, was adopted. In this system, instead of being strangled, the other princes were kept behind cages in a special place in the palace. By following this rule, Ahmet I’s first successor was his eldest son Mustafa.
His Greatest Heritage: Sultan Ahmed Mosque
The most important work that has survived from the reign of Sultan Ahmed I, who attached great importance to the development of Istanbul, is the Sultan Ahmet Mosque. Ahmet I himself worked on the excavation of the foundations of the Sultan Ahmet Mosque, which has an important place in art history due to its architectural features. During his reign, Ahmet I also had the Kaaba maintained and had a pulpit made of white marble prepared in Istanbul sent to Medina to replace the worn-out pulpit of the Masjid al-Nabawi.
Final Words
In conclusion, the extra history of Sultan Ahmed I underscores a period of significant transformation and cultural flourishing for the Ottoman Empire. His reign, though fraught with challenges, was marked by notable achievements in architecture, governance, and religious patronage. The construction of the Blue Mosque and his efforts to end fratricide are lasting legacies that continue to influence Ottoman history. Ahmed I’s leadership, characterized by both resilience and vision, played a crucial role in shaping the empire’s future.
Reflecting on the extra history of Sultan Ahmed I, it is evident that his contributions extended beyond his immediate reign. His policies and reforms laid the groundwork for future stability and cultural development within the Ottoman Empire. The lessons from his leadership offer valuable insights into the complexities of governance and the enduring impact of visionary rulers. Sultan Ahmed I’s legacy remains a significant chapter in the rich tapestry of Ottoman history.
Source: The Most Powerful Dynasty of History, from Ertuğrul Bey to Sultan Vahdettin, The Ottomans, Masters of Three Continents, Hasan Yılmaz, Elips Kitap, 1st Edition May 2015, Ankara.